Biological Determinants of Gender Identity Development
One's self-awareness as male or female changes gradually during infant life and childhood. This process of cognitive and affective learning evolves with interactions with parents, peers, and environment. A fairly accurate timetable exists outlining the steps in this process.[19] Normative psychological literature, however, does not address if and when gender identity becomes crystallized and what factors contribute to the development of a gender identity that is not congruent with the gender of rearing. Results of studies from a variety of biomedical disciplines—genetic, endocrine, and neuroanatomic—support the concept that gender identity and/or gender expression[20] likely reflect a complex interplay of biological, environmental, and cultural factors.[21,22]
With respect to endocrine considerations, studies have failed to find differences in circulating levels of sex steroids between transgender and nontransgender individuals.[23] However, studies in individuals with a disorder/difference of sex development (DSD) have informed our understanding of the role that hormones may play in gender identity outcome, even though most persons with GD/gender incongruence do not have a DSD. For example, although most 46, XX adult individuals with virilizing congenital adrenal hyperplasia caused by mutations in CYP21A2 reported a female gender identity, the prevalence of GD/gender incongruence was much greater in this group than in the general population without a DSD. This supports the concept that there is a role for prenatal/postnatal androgens in gender development,[24–26] although some studies indicate that prenatal androgens are more likely to affect gender behavior and sexual orientation rather than gender identity per se.[27,28]
Researchers have made similar observations regarding the potential role of androgens in the development of gender identity in other individuals with DSD. For example, a review of two groups of 46, XY persons, each with androgen synthesis deficiencies and female raised, reported transgender male (female-to-male) gender role changes in 56% to 63% and 39% to 64% of patients, respectively.[29] Also, in 46, XY female-raised individuals with cloacal exstrophy and penile agenesis, the occurrence of transgender male changes was significantly more prevalent than in the general population.[30,31] However, the fact that a high percentage of individuals with the same conditions did not change gender suggests that cultural factors may play a role as well.
With respect to genetics and gender identity, several studies have suggested heritability of GD/gender incongruence.[32,33] In particular, a study by Heylens et al.[33] demonstrated a 39.1% concordance rate for gender identity disorder (based on the DSM-IV criteria) in 23 monozygotic twin pairs but no concordance in 21 same-sex dizygotic or seven opposite-sex twin pairs. Although numerous investigators have sought to identify specific genes associated with GD/gender incongruence, such studies have been inconsistent and without strong statistical significance.[34–38]
Studies focusing on brain structure suggest that the brain phenotypes of people with GD/gender incongruence differ in various ways from control males and females, but that there is not a complete sex reversal in brain structures.[39]
In summary, although there is much that is still unknown with respect to gender identity and its expression, compelling studies support the concept that biologic factors, in addition to environmental factors, contribute to this fundamental aspect of human development.
J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2017;102(11):3869-3903. © 2017 Endocrine Society
