Please confirm that you would like to log out of Medscape.
If you log out, you will be required to enter your username and password the next time you visit.
Log outCancel
How Healthy Is Coffee? The Latest Evidence
Bret S. Stetka, MD | September 15, 2017
| Contributor Information
Swipe to advance
Image courtesy of Darbe Rotach/Medscape
How Healthy Is Coffee? The Latest Evidence
Bret S. Stetka, MD | September 15, 2017 | Contributor Information
Introduction
The body of evidence suggesting that moderate coffee consumption is both safe and beneficial in healthy individuals continues to mount. Drinking up to five cups per day may play an important role in mental and physiologic health, as well as longevity.[1] Let's take a look at the latest research.
Data from Park et al, 2017[3]
How Healthy Is Coffee? The Latest Evidence
Bret S. Stetka, MD | September 15, 2017 | Contributor Information
New Data
Two large studies[2,3] published on July 10, 2017, in Annals of Internal Medicine report that coffee intake is linked to significantly lower risk for death from all causes. For the first time, researchers explored the relationship between coffee consumption, health, and mortality around the globe while controlling for preparation differences. Benefits were observed across diverse European populations and different racial and ethnic groups. This supports previous research showing an association between coffee consumption and a reduction in all-cause mortality.[4,5]
Data from Cheng et al, 2014[8]
How Healthy Is Coffee? The Latest Evidence
Bret S. Stetka, MD | September 15, 2017 | Contributor Information
It could be that the beneficial properties of coffee counteract its negative effects. Coffee beans appear to reduce oxidation of low-density lipoprotein cholesterol as well as inflammatory markers.[10-14]
Image from Wikipedia
How Healthy Is Coffee? The Latest Evidence
Bret S. Stetka, MD | September 15, 2017 | Contributor Information
Cerebrovascular Disease and Stroke
The vascular benefits of coffee are not lost on the brain. A meta-analysis[15] found that consuming one to six cups per day cut stroke risk by 17%, and a study of Swedish women showed a 22%-25% risk reduction.[16] Another meta-analysis, of patients without cerebrovascular disease, concluded that one to three cups per day may protect against ischemic stroke in the general population,[17] and a Japanese study discovered that drinking coffee for an average of 13 years reduced stroke risk by 20%.[18]
Image from Wikipedia
How Healthy Is Coffee? The Latest Evidence
Bret S. Stetka, MD | September 15, 2017 | Contributor Information
Diabetes
Coffee appears to play an important role in warding off hyperglycemia, abnormal lipid levels, and increased body fat. Numerous studies have linked regular coffee drinking with improved glucose metabolism, insulin secretion, and a significantly reduced risk for diabetes.[19-23] Experts have suggested that coffee's inverse correlation with diabetes might be associated with its anti-inflammatory properties[23] and the antioxidant mechanism of chlorogenic acid, thought to reduce glucose absorption.[24]
Data from Schmit et al, 2016[35]
How Healthy Is Coffee? The Latest Evidence
Bret S. Stetka, MD | September 15, 2017 | Contributor Information
Cancer
Studies have linked coffee consumption with reduced risk for numerous cancers, including endometrial (more than four cups daily),[25] prostate (six cups daily),[26]head and neck (four cups daily),[27,28] and breast cancer (more than five cups daily)[29,30]; basal cell carcinoma (more than three cups daily)[31]; and melanoma.[32] The benefits are thought to be at least partially due to coffee's antioxidant and antimutagenic properties.[33,34] More recently, research discovered a significant reduction in colorectal cancer incidence in those consuming more than 2.5 cups daily.[35]
Image courtesy of Wikipedia
How Healthy Is Coffee? The Latest Evidence
Bret S. Stetka, MD | September 15, 2017 | Contributor Information
Neurodegeneration
In addition to providing a quick mental boost, coffee appears to benefit longer-term cognition. One study reported that patients with mild cognitive impairment avoided progression by drinking three to five cups per day.[33] Other research[34] has found a correlation between caffeine and memory consolidation, and between coffee and prevention of Lewy body formation.[36] Research on mice suggests that caffeine suppresses amyloid-beta production, whereas coffee boosts granulocyte colony-stimulating factor, interleukin-10, and interleukin-6 levels. Caffeinated coffee has long been thought to be neuroprotective in Parkinson disease as well.
Image from Thinkstock
How Healthy Is Coffee? The Latest Evidence
Bret S. Stetka, MD | September 15, 2017 | Contributor Information
Depression
Research suggests that coffee consumption can boost mental health and protect against depression.[37,38]In one study, women who drank two to three cups of coffee per day had a 15% decreased risk for depression compared with those who drank less than one cup per week. A 20% decreased risk was seen in those who drank four cups or more per day. Short-term effects on mood may come from altered serotonin and dopamine activity. Long-term effects may be related to coffee's antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties.[39-42]
Data from Chalasani, 2016[49]
How Healthy Is Coffee? The Latest Evidence
Bret S. Stetka, MD | September 15, 2017 | Contributor Information
Liver Disease
Coffee consumption can protect the liver, slowing the progression of alcoholic cirrhosis and hepatitis C and reducing the risk for hepatocellular carcinoma.[43-46] Other research has found that it lowers the risk for nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD)[47] and can protect against liver fibrosis in patients who already have NAFLD.[48] Among people with a genetic predisposition for alcoholic hepatitis, those who did not drink coffee on a regular basis were more likely to have developed the disease.[49]
Image from Thinkstock
How Healthy Is Coffee? The Latest Evidence
Bret S. Stetka, MD | September 15, 2017 | Contributor Information
And That’s Not All…
An assortment of other research suggests that coffee intake might also relieve dry-eye syndrome,[50] decrease the risk for gout,[51] and fight infection—even potentially protecting against methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA).[52] Although the mechanism of action remains unclear, coffee (and tea) drinkers in the study were approximately one half as likely to have MRSA in their nasal passages.
Image from Thinkstock
How Healthy Is Coffee? The Latest Evidence
Bret S. Stetka, MD | September 15, 2017 | Contributor Information
The Risks
Of course, with benefits often come risks as well. In addition to raising blood pressure, coffee can incite or worsen anxiety, insomnia, and tremor and potentially elevate glaucoma risk.[53] There has also been controversy over whether or not one can overdose on caffeine but as John Mandrola, MD, points out, the six cups of coffee that a teenager drank before his tragic death contained "enough caffeine to cause side effects, jitteriness, increased heartbeat, nausea, anxiety, diaphoresis, etc, but it's well below the general accepted lethal dose of 10 g daily (100 cups of coffee)."
Image courtesy of Darbe Rotach/Medscape
How Healthy Is Coffee? The Latest Evidence
Bret S. Stetka, MD | September 15, 2017 | Contributor Information
Observational but Ample
As Dr Mandrola told Medscape, "[T]he literature [on coffee] is replete with studies showing the same thing." He suggested that it may be time to "[s]top studying coffee and move our attention to more pressing issues."
It is important to remember that most of this voluminous evidence is associational and doesn't prove causality. The sheer volume of the observational data does suggest, though, that going back for a second cup of coffee might not be a bad decision.
Commenting is limited to medical professionals. To comment please Log-in.
Comments on Medscape are moderated and should be professional in tone and on topic. You must declare any conflicts of interest related to your comments and responses. Please see our Commenting Guide for further information. We reserve the right to remove posts at our sole discretion.
Comments on Medscape are moderated and should be professional in tone and on topic. You must declare any conflicts of interest related to your comments and responses. Please see our Commenting Guide for further information. We reserve the right to remove posts at our sole discretion.
Close
Contributor Information
Author
Bret S. Stetka, MD
Editorial Director
Medscape Psychiatry
Updated and edited by Jennifer Leavitt, MS
Editorial Director Medscape
Graphics by Emily Berry
Senior Editor
Medscape Medical News
Gunter MJ, Murphy N, Cross AJ, et al. Coffee drinking and mortality in 10 European countries: a multinational cohort study. Ann Intern Med. 2017 Aug 15. [Epub ahead of print] Abstract
Park SY, Freedman ND, Haiman CA, et al. Association of coffee consumption with total and cause-specific mortality among nonwhite populations. Ann Intern Med 2017 Aug 15. [Epub ahead of print] Abstract
Freedman ND, Park Y, Abnet CC, Hollenbeck AR, Sinha R. Association of coffee drinking with total and cause-specific mortality. N Engl J Med. 2012;366:1891-1904.
Crippa A, Discacciati A, Larsson SC, Wolk A, Orsini N. Coffee consumption and mortality from all causes, cardiovascular disease, and cancer: a dose-response meta-analysis. Am J Epidemiol. 2014;180:763-775.
Wu JN, Ho SC, Zhou C, et al. Coffee consumption and risk of coronary heart diseases: a meta-analysis of 21 prospective cohort studies. Int J Cardiol. 2009;137:216-225.
Mostofsky E, Rice MS, Levitan EB, Mittleman MA. Habitual coffee consumption and risk of heart failure: a dose response meta-analysis. Circ Heart Fail. 2012;5:401-405. http://circheartfailure.ahajournals.org Accessed August 6, 2015.
Cheng M, Hu Z, Lu X, Huang, J, Gu D. Caffeine intake and atrial fibrillation incidence: dose response meta-analysis of prospective cohort studies. Can J Cardiol. 2014 30:448-454.
Dixit S, Stein PK, Dewland TA. Consumption of "healthy" caffeinated products and cardiac ectopy. Program and abstracts of the Heart Rhythm Society 2015 Scientific Sessions; May 13-15, 2015; Boston, Massachusetts. Abstract PO01-113.
Larsson SC, Orsini N. Coffee consumption and risk of stroke: a dose-response meta-analysis of prospective studies. Am J Epidemiol. 2011;174:993-1001.
Natella F, Nardini M, Belelli F, Scaccini C. Coffee drinking induces incorporation of phenolic acids into LDL and increases the resistance of LDL to ex vivo oxidation in humans. Am J Clin Nutr. 2007;86:604-609.
Gómez-Ruiz JA, Leake DS, Ames JM. In vitro antioxidant activity of coffee compounds and their metabolites. J Agric Food Chem. 2007;55:6962-6969.
Nardini M, D'Aquino M, Tomassi G, Gentili V, Di Felice M, Scaccini C. Inhibition of human low-density lipoprotein oxidation by caffeic acid and other hydroxycinnamic acid derivatives. Free Radic Biol Med. 1995;19:541-552.
Montagnana M, Favaloro EJ, Lippi G. Coffee intake and cardiovascular disease: virtue does not take center stage. Semin Thromb Hemost. 2012;38:164-177.
Larsson SC, Orsini N. Coffee consumption and risk of stroke: a dose-response meta-analysis of prospective studies. Am J Epidemiol. 2011;174:993-1001.
Larsson SC, Virtamo J, Wolk A. Coffee consumption and risk of stroke in women. Stroke. 2011;42:908-912.
D'Elia L, Cairella G, Garbagnati F, et al. Moderate coffee consumption is associated with lower risk of stroke: meta-analysis of prospective studies. J Hypertens. 2012;30 (Suppl A):e107.
Kokubo Y, Iso H, Saito I, et al. The impact of green tea and coffee consumption on the reduced risk of stroke incidence in Japanese population: the Japan public health center-based study cohort. Stroke. 2013;44:1369-1374.
Huxley R, Lee CM, Barzi F, et al. Coffee, decaffeinated coffee, and tea consumption in relation to incident type 2 diabetes mellitus: a systematic review with meta-analysis. Arch Intern Med. 2009;169:2053-2063.
Sartorelli DS, Fagherazzi G, Balkau B, et al. Differential effects of coffee on the risk of type 2 diabetes according to meal consumption in a French cohort of women: the E3N/EPIC cohort study. Am J Clin Nutr. 2010;91:1002-1012.
Floegel A, Pischon T, Bermann MM, Teucher B, Kaaks R, Boeing H. Coffee consumption and risk of chronic disease in the European Prospective Investigation into Cancer and Nutrition (EPIC) Germany study. Am J Clin Nutr. 2012;95:901-908.
Bhupathiraju SN, Pan A, Manson JE, Willett WC, van Dam RM, Hu FB. Changes in coffee intake and subsequent risk of type 2 diabetes: three large cohorts of US men and women. Diabetologia. 2014;57:1346-1354.
Koloverou E, Panagiotako DB, Pitsavos C, et al. The evaluation of inflammatory and oxidative stress biomarkers on coffee-diabetes association: results from the 10-year follow-up of the ATTICA Study (2002-2012). Eur J Clin Nutr. 2015;69:1220-1225.
Vinson JA, Burnham B, Nagendran MV, et al. Randomized double-blind placebo-controlled crossover study to evaluate the efficacy and safety of a green coffee bean extract in overweight subjects. Program and abstracts of the 243rd American Chemical Society National Meeting and Exposition; March 25-29, 2012; San Diego, California. Abstract 92.
Je Y, Hankison SE, Tworoger SS, De Vivo I, Giovannucci E. A prospective cohort study of coffee consumption and risk of endometrial cancer over a 26-year follow-up. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev. 2011;20:2487-2495.
Wilson KM, Kasperzyk JL, Rider JR, et al. Coffee consumption and prostate cancer risk and progression in the Health Professionals Follow-up Study. J Natl Cancer Inst. 2011;8;103:876-884.
Turati F, Galeone C, La Vecchia C, Garavello W, Tavani A. Coffee and cancers of the upper digestive and respiratory tracts: meta-analyses of observational studies. Ann Oncol. 2011;22:536-544.
Galeone C, Tavani A, Pelucchi C, et al. Coffee and tea intake and risk of head and neck cancer: pooled analysis in the international head and neck cancer epidemiology consortium. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev. 2010;19:1723-1736.
Li J, Seibold P, Chang-Claude J, et al. Coffee consumption modifies risk of estrogen-receptor negative breast cancer. Breast Cancer Res. 2011;13:R49.
Bhoo-Pathy N, Peeters PH, Uiterwaal C, et al. Coffee and tea consumption and risk of pre- and postmenopausal breast cancer in the European Prospective Investigation Into Cancer and Nutrition (EPIC) cohort study. Breast Cancer Res. 2015;17:15.
Song F, Qureshi AA, Han J. Increased caffeine intake is associated with reduced risk of basal cell carcinoma of the skin. Cancer Res. 2012;72:3282-3289.
Loftfield E, Freedman ND, Graubard BI, et al. Coffee drinking and cutaneous melanoma risk in the NIH-AARP Diet and Health Study. J Natl Cancer Inst. 2015;107.
Cao C, Loewenstein DA, Lin X, et al. High blood caffeine levels in MCI linked to lack of progression to dementia. J Alzheimer Dis. 2012;30:559-572.
Borota D, Murray E, Keceli G, et al. Post-study caffeine administration enhances memory consolidation in humans. Nat Neurosci. 2014;17:201-203.
Schmit SL, Rennert HS, Rennert G, Gruber SB. Coffee consumption and the risk of colorectal cancer. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev. 2016;25:634-639.
Ross W, Duda J, Abbott R, et al. Association of coffee caffeine consumption with brain Lewy pathology in the Honolulu-Asia Aging Study. Program and abstracts of the 64th Annual Meeting of the American Academy of Neurology; April 21-28, 2012; New Orleans, Louisiana. Abstract S42.005.
Lucas M, Mirzaei F, Pan A, et al. Coffee, caffeine, and risk of depression among women. Arch Intern Med. 2011;171:1571-1578.
Brooks M. Sweetened drinks may boost depression, coffee reduces it. Medscape Medical News. January 9, 2013. http://www.medscape.com/viewarticle/777356 Accessed August 17, 2015.
Lucas M, Mirzaei F, Pan A, et al. Coffee, caffeine, and risk of depression among women. Arch Intern Med. 2011;171:1571-1578.
Pasco JA, Nicholson GC, Williams LJ, et al. Association of high-sensitivity C-reactive protein with de novo major depression. Br J Psychiatry. 2010;197:372-377.
Ng F, Berk M, Dean O, Bush AI. Oxidative stress in psychiatric disorders: evidence base and therapeutic implications. Int J Neuropsychopharmacol. 2008;11:851-876.
Molloy JW, Calcagno CJ, Williams CD, Jones FJ, Torres DM, Harrison SA. Association of coffee and caffeine consumption with fatty liver disease, nonalcoholic steatohepatitis, and degree of hepatic fibrosis. Hepatology. 2012;55:429-436.
Gallus S, Tavani A, Negri E, La Vecchia C. Does coffee protect against liver cirrhosis? Ann Epidemiol. 2002;12:202-205.
Bambha K, Wilson LA, Unalp A, et al; Nonalcoholic Steatohepatitis Clinical Research Network (NASH CRN). Coffee consumption in NAFLD patients with lower insulin resistance is associated with lower risk of severe fibrosis. Liver Int. 2014;34:1250-1258.
Modi AA, Feld JJ, Park Y, et al. Increased caffeine consumption is associated with reduced hepatic fibrosis. Hepatology. 2010;51:201-209.
Birerdinc A, Stepanova M, Pawloski L, Younossi M. Caffeine is protective in patients with non-alcoholic fatty liver disease. Aliment Pharmacol Ther. 2012;35:76-82.
Saab S, Mallam D, Cox GA 2nd, Tong MJ. Impact of coffee on liver diseases. Liver Int. 2014;34:495-504.
Chalasani NP. Acute alcoholic hepatitis in the United States: Clinical characteristics, outcomes and relationship with PNPLA3 genotype and coffee drinking. Program and abstracts of the American College of Gastroenterology 2016 Annual Scientific Meeting; October 14-19, 2016; Las Vegas, Nevada.
Arita R, Yanagi Y, Honda N, Maeda S, et al. Caffeine increases tear volume depending on polymorphisms within the adenosine A2a receptor gene and cytochrome P450 1A2. Ophthalmology. 2012;119:972-978.
Choi HK, Willett W, Curhan G. Coffee consumption and risk of incident gout in men: a prospective study. Arthritis Rheum. 2007;56:2049-2055.
Matheson EM, Mainous AG, Everett CJ, King DE. Tea and coffee consumption and MRSA nasal carriage. Ann Fam Med. 2011;9:299-304.
Jiwani AZ, Rhee DJ, Brauner SC, et al. Effects of caffeinated coffee consumption on intraocular pressure, ocular perfusion pressure, and ocular pulse amplitude: a randomized controlled trial. Eye (Lond). 2012; 26:1122-1130.
Close
Image Zoom
Close
Feedback
Please do not use this form to submit personal or patient medical information or to report adverse drug events. You are encouraged to report adverse drug event information to the FDA.
Comments