Taylor CA, Bell JM, Breiding MJ, Xu L. Traumatic Brain Injury-Related Emergency Department Visits, Hospitalizations, and Deaths - United States, 2007 and 2013. MMWR Surveill Summ. 2017 Mar 17. 66 (9):1-16. [Medline]. [Full Text].
Silver JM, McAllister TW, Yodofsky SC, eds. Textbook of Traumatic Brain Injury. Arlington, Va: American Psychiatric Publishing; 2005. Arlington, VA: 27-39.
McDonald CM, Jaffe KM, Fay GC, et al. Comparison of indices of traumatic brain injury severity as predictors of neurobehavioral outcome in children. Arch Phys Med Rehabil. 1994 Mar. 75(3):328-37. [Medline].
Teasdale G, Jennett B. Assessment of coma and impaired consciousness. A practical scale. Lancet. 1974 Jul 13. 2(7872):81-4. [Medline].
Russell WR. Cerebral involvement in head injury. Brain. 1932. 55:549-603.
Cifu DX, Kaelin DL, Wall BE. Deep venous thrombosis: incidence on admission to a brain injury rehabilitation program. Arch Phys Med Rehabil. 1996 Nov. 77(11):1182-5. [Medline].
Melamed E, Robinson D, Halperin N, et al. Brain injury-related heterotopic bone formation: treatment strategy and results. Am J Phys Med Rehabil. 2002 Sep. 81(9):670-4. [Medline].
Chamelian L, Feinstein A. The effect of major depression on subjective and objective cognitive deficits in mild to moderate traumatic brain injury. J Neuropsychiatry Clin Neurosci. 2006. 18(1):33-8. [Medline].
Jorge RE, Robinson RG, Moser D, et al. Major depression following traumatic brain injury. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 2004 Jan. 61(1):42-50. [Medline]. [Full Text].
Kumar RG, Gao S, Juengst SB, Wagner AK, Fabio A. The effects of post-traumatic depression on cognition, pain, fatigue, and headache after moderate-to-severe traumatic brain injury: a thematic review. Brain Inj. 2018 Jan 22. 1-12. [Medline].
Grauwmeijer E, Heijenbrok-Kal M, Peppel L, et al. Cognition, Health-related Quality of life, and Depression Ten Years after Moderate to Severe Traumatic Brain Injury: a prospective cohort study. J Neurotrauma. 2018 Jan 17. [Medline].
Keith RA, Granger CV, Hamilton BB, et al. The functional independence measure: a new tool for rehabilitation. Adv Clin Rehabil. 1987. 1:6-18. [Medline].
Jennett B, Bond M. Assessment of outcome after severe brain damage. Lancet. 1975 Mar 1. 1(7905):480-4. [Medline].
Chambers J, Cohen SS, Hemminger L, et al. Mild traumatic brain injuries in low-risk trauma patients. J Trauma. 1996 Dec. 41(6):976-80. [Medline].
CDC. TBI: get the facts. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Available at https://www.cdc.gov/traumaticbraininjury/get_the_facts.html. Updated Apr 27, 2017; Accessed: Jan 31, 2018.
Harrison-Felix C, Whiteneck G, Devivo MJ, et al. Causes of death following 1 year postinjury among individuals with traumatic brain injury. J Head Trauma Rehabil. 2006 Jan-Feb. 21(1):22-33. [Medline].
Lu J, Marmarou A, Choi S, et al. Mortality from traumatic brain injury. Acta Neurochir Suppl. 2005. 95:281-5. [Medline].
CDC. Severe traumatic brain injury. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Available at http://www.cdc.gov/TraumaticBrainInjury/severe.html. Accessed: Jul 14, 2015.
Flint AC, Manley GT, Gean AD, et al. Post-operative expansion of hemorrhagic contusions after unilateral decompressive hemicraniectomy in severe traumatic brain injury. J Neurotrauma. Mar 17 2008 [Epub ahead of print]. [Medline].
Smith DH, Meaney DF, Shull WH. Diffuse axonal injury in head trauma. J Head Trauma Rehabil. 2003 Jul-Aug. 18(4):307-16. [Medline].
Noppens R, Brambrink AM. Traumatic brain injury in children--clinical implications. Exp Toxicol Pathol. 2004 Oct. 56(1-2):113-25. [Medline].
Hammad A, Westacott L, Zaben M. The role of the complement system in traumatic brain injury: a review. J Neuroinflammation. 2018 Jan 22. 15 (1):24. [Medline]. [Full Text].
Greenwald BD, Burnett DM, Miller MA. Congenital and acquired brain injury. 1. Brain injury: epidemiology and pathophysiology. Arch Phys Med Rehabil. 2003 Mar. 84(3 Suppl 1):S3-S7.
Levin HS, O'Donnell VM, Grossman RG. The Galveston Orientation and Amnesia Test. A practical scale to assess cognition after head injury. J Nerv Ment Dis. 1979 Nov. 167(11):675-84.
Zafonte RD, Mann NR, Millis SR, et al. Posttraumatic amnesia: its relation to functional outcome. Arch Phys Med Rehabil. 1997 Oct. 78(10):1103-6. [Medline].
Thompson DO, Hurtado TR, Liao MM, Byyny RL, Gravitz C, Haukoos JS. Validation of the Simplified Motor Score in the Out-of-Hospital Setting for the Prediction of Outcomes After Traumatic Brain Injury. Ann Emerg Med. 2011 Nov. 58(5):417-25. [Medline].
Bushnik T, Englander J, Duong T. Medical and social issues related to posttraumatic seizures in persons with traumatic brain injury. J Head Trauma Rehabil. 2004 Jul-Aug. 19(4):296-304. [Medline].
Yablon SA. Posttraumatic seizures. Arch Phys Med Rehabil. 1993 Sep. 74(9):983-1001. [Medline].
Majidi S, Makke Y, Ewida A, Sianati B, Qureshi AI, Koubeissi MZ. Prevalence and Risk Factors for Early Seizure in Patients with Traumatic Brain Injury: Analysis from National Trauma Data Bank. Neurocrit Care. 2016 Dec 20. [Medline].
Temkin NR, Dikmen SS, Wilensky AJ, et al. A randomized, double-blind study of phenytoin for the prevention of post-traumatic seizures. N Engl J Med. 1990 Aug 23. 323(8):497-502. [Medline].
Parcell DL, Ponsford JL, Rajaratnam SM, et al. Self-reported changes to nighttime sleep after traumatic brain injury. Arch Phys Med Rehabil. 2006 Feb. 87(2):278-85. [Medline].
Hammond FM, McDeavitt JT. Cognitive and behavior effects of brain injury. Rosenthal M, Griffith ER, Kreutzer JS, et al, eds. Rehabilitation of the Adult and Child. 3rd ed. Philadelphia, Pa: FA Davis; 1999. 53-73.
Geerts WH, Pineo GF, Heit JA, et al. Prevention of venous thromboembolism: the Seventh ACCP Conference on Antithrombotic and Thrombolytic Therapy. Chest. 2004 Sep. 126(3 Suppl):338S-400S. [Medline]. [Full Text].
Frisoli F, Huang PP, Frangos S. 180 Early Deep Vein Thrombosis Chemoprophylaxis in Traumatic Brain Injury. Neurosurgery. 2016 Aug. 63 Suppl 1:171-2. [Medline].
Buller HR, Agnelli G, Hull RD, et al. Antithrombotic therapy for venous thromboembolic disease: the Seventh ACCP Conference on Antithrombotic and Thrombolytic Therapy. Chest. 2004 Sep. 126(3 Suppl):401S-428S. [Medline]. [Full Text].
Elovic E, Zafonte RD. Spasticity management in traumatic brain injury. Phys Med Rehabil State Art Rev. 2001. 15:327-48.
Giannantoni A, Silvestro D, Siracusano S, et al. Urologic dysfunction and neurologic outcome in coma survivors after severe traumatic brain injury in the postacute and chronic phase. Arch Phys Med Rehabil. 2011 Jul. 92(7):1134-8. [Medline].
Martini DN, Sabin MJ, DePesa SA, Leal EW, Negrete TN, Sosnoff JJ, et al. The chronic effects of concussion on gait. Arch Phys Med Rehabil. 2011 Apr. 92(4):585-9. [Medline].
Prien A, Grafe A, Rossler R, Junge A, Verhagen E. Epidemiology of Head Injuries Focusing on Concussions in Team Contact Sports: A Systematic Review. Sports Med. 2018 Jan 18. [Medline].
Aldag M, Armstrong RC, Bandak F, et al. The Biological Basis of Chronic Traumatic Encephalopathy following Blast Injury: A Literature Review. J Neurotrauma. 2017 Sep. 34 (S1):S26-S43. [Medline]. [Full Text].
McKee AC, Cairns NJ, Dickson DW, et al. The first NINDS/NIBIB consensus meeting to define neuropathological criteria for the diagnosis of chronic traumatic encephalopathy. Acta Neuropathol. 2016 Jan. 131 (1):75-86. [Medline]. [Full Text].
Armstrong RA, McKee AC, Stein TD, Alvarez VE, Cairns NJ. A quantitative study of tau pathology in eleven cases of chronic traumatic encephalopathy. Neuropathol Appl Neurobiol. 2016 Mar 21. [Medline].
Castellani RJ. Chronic traumatic encephalopathy: A paradigm in search of evidence?. Lab Invest. 2015 Jun. 95 (6):576-84. [Medline]. [Full Text].
Diseases and conditions: chronic traumatic encephalopathy. Mayo Clinic. Available at http://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/chronic-traumatic-encephalopathy/basics/definition/con-20113581. Accessed: Sep 22, 2015.
What is CTE?. BU CTE Center. Available at http://www.bu.edu/cte/about/what-is-cte/. Accessed: Sep 22, 2015.
McKee AC, Cantu RC, Nowinski CJ, et al. Chronic traumatic encephalopathy in athletes: progressive tauopathy after repetitive head injury. J Neuropathol Exp Neurol. 2009 Jul. 68 (7):709-35. [Medline].
Hanna J, Goldschmidt D, Flower K. 87 of 91 tested ex-NFL players had brain disease linked to head trauma. Sep 20, 2015. Available at http://www.cnn.com/2015/09/18/health/nfl-brain-study-cte/.
Breslow JM. 87 Deceased NFL Players Test Positive for Brain Disease. Sep 18, 2015. Available at http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/sports/concussion-watch/new-87-deceased-nfl-players-test-positive-for-brain-disease/.
Baguley IJ, Cooper J, Felmingham K. Aggressive behavior following traumatic brain injury: how common is common?. J Head Trauma Rehabil. 2006 Jan-Feb. 21(1):45-56. [Medline].
Corrigan JD. Development of a scale for assessment of agitation following traumatic brain injury. J Clin Exp Neuropsychol. 1989 Mar. 11(2):261-77. [Medline].
Bogner JA, Corrigan JD, Stange M, et al. Reliability of the Agitated Behavior Scale. J Head Trauma Rehabil. 1999 Feb. 14(1):91-6. [Medline].
Deb S, Crownshaw T. The role of pharmacotherapy in the management of behaviour disorders in traumatic brain injury patients. Brain Inj. 2004 Jan. 18(1):1-31. [Medline].
Brooke MM, Patterson DR, Questad KA, et al. The treatment of agitation during initial hospitalization after traumatic brain injury. Arch Phys Med Rehabil. 1992 Oct. 73(10):917-21. [Medline].
Leone H, Polsonetti BW. Amantadine for traumatic brain injury: does it improve cognition and reduce agitation?. J Clin Pharm Ther. 2005 Apr. 30(2):101-4. [Medline].
Nickels JL, Schneider WN, Dombovy ML, et al. Clinical use of amantadine in brain injury rehabilitation. Brain Inj. 1994 Nov-Dec. 8(8):709-18. [Medline].
Pachet A, Friesen S, Winkelaar D, et al. Beneficial behavioural effects of lamotrigine in traumatic brain injury. Brain Inj. 2003 Aug. 17(8):715-22. [Medline].
Chatham Showalter PE, Kimmel DN. Agitated symptom response to divalproex following acute brain injury. J Neuropsychiatry Clin Neurosci. 2000. 12(3):395-7. [Medline].
Stanislav SW. Cognitive effects of antipsychotic agents in persons with traumatic brain injury. Brain Inj. 1997 May. 11(5):335-41. [Medline].
Kraus J, Schaffer K, Ayers K, et al. Physical complaints, medical service use, and social and employment changes following mild traumatic brain injury: a 6-month longitudinal study. J Head Trauma Rehabil. 2005 May-Jun. 20(3):239-56.
Gordon WA, Brown M, Sliwinski M, et al. The enigma of "hidden" traumatic brain injury. J Head Trauma Rehabil. 1998 Dec. 13(6):39-56. [Medline].
Ponsford J, Willmott C, Rothwell A, et al. Factors influencing outcome following mild traumatic brain injury in adults. J Int Neuropsychol Soc. 2000 Jul. 6(5):568-79. [Medline].
Caplain S, Blancho S, Marque S, Montreuil M, Aghakhani N. Early Detection of Poor Outcome after Mild Traumatic Brain Injury: Predictive Factors Using a Multidimensional Approach a Pilot Study. Front Neurol. 2017. 8:666. [Medline]. [Full Text].
Malojcic B, Mubrin Z, Coric B, et al. Consequences of mild traumatic brain injury on information processing assessed with attention and short-term memory tasks. J Neurotrauma. Jan 2008. 25(1):30-7. [Medline].
Wei L, Wen YT, Thompson HJ, et al. Sleep Disturbances Following Traumatic Brain Injury in Older Adults: A Comparison Study. J Head Trauma Rehabil. 2020 Feb 26. [Medline].
Brooks M. Bright Light Therapy Improves Sleep, Cognition in Mild TBI. Medscape Medical News. Jun 10 2013. Available at http://www.medscape.com/viewarticle/805547. Accessed: Jun 19 2013.
SLEEP 2013: Associated Professional Sleep Societies 27th Annual Meeting. Abstract 0751. Presented Jun 3 2013.
Khateb A, Ammann J, Annoni JM, et al. Cognition-enhancing effects of donepezil in traumatic brain injury. Eur Neurol. 2005. 54(1):39-45. [Medline].
Walker WC, Seel RT, Curtiss G, et al. Headache after moderate and severe traumatic brain injury: a longitudinal analysis. Arch Phys Med Rehabil. 2005 Sep. 86(9):1793-800. [Medline].
Solomon S. Posttraumatic headache. Med Clin North Am. 2001 Jul. 85(4):987-96, vii-viii. [Medline].
Ashina H, Iljazi A, Al-Khazali HM, et al. Persistent post-traumatic headache attributed to mild traumatic brain injury: Deep phenotyping and treatment patterns. Cephalalgia. 2020 Feb 26. 333102420909865. [Medline].
Jorge RE, Starkstein SE. Pathophysiologic aspects of major depression following traumatic brain injury. J Head Trauma Rehabil. 2005 Nov-Dec. 20(6):475-87. [Medline].
Dikmen SS, Bombardier CH, Machamer JE, et al. Natural history of depression in traumatic brain injury. Arch Phys Med Rehabil. 2004 Sep. 85(9):1457-64. [Medline].
Whitnall L, McMillan TM, Murray GD, et al. Disability in young people and adults after head injury: 5-7 year follow up of a prospective cohort study. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 2006 May. 77(5):640-5. [Medline].
Lee H, Kim SW, Kim JM, et al. Comparing effects of methylphenidate, sertraline and placebo on neuropsychiatric sequelae in patients with traumatic brain injury. Hum Psychopharmacol. 2005 Mar. 20(2):97-104. [Medline].
Whyte J, Hart T, Schuster K, et al. Effects of methylphenidate on attentional function after traumatic brain injury. A randomized, placebo-controlled trial. Am J Phys Med Rehabil. 1997 Nov-Dec. 76(6):440-50. [Medline].
Zafonte RD, Lexell J, Cullen N. Possible applications for dopaminergic agents following traumatic brain injury: part 2. J Head Trauma Rehabil. 2001 Feb. 16(1):112-6. [Medline].
Robertson RH, Knight RG. Evaluation of social problem solving after traumatic brain injury. Neuropsychol Rehabil. Apr 2008. 18(2):236-50. [Medline].
Rappaport M, Hall KM, Hopkins K, et al. Disability rating scale for severe head trauma: coma to community. Arch Phys Med Rehabil. 1982 Mar. 63(3):118-23. [Medline].
OʼNeil-Pirozzi TM, Ketchum JM, Hammond FM, Philippus A, Weber E, Dams-OʼConnor K. Physical, Cognitive, and Psychosocial Characteristics Associated With Mortality in Chronic TBI Survivors: A National Institute on Disability, Independent Living, and Rehabilitation Research Traumatic Brain Injury Model Systems Study. J Head Trauma Rehabil. 2017 Dec 21. [Medline].
Brown AW, Malec JF, McClelland RL, et al. Clinical elements that predict outcome after traumatic brain injury: a prospective multicenter recursive partitioning (decision-tree) analysis. J Neurotrauma. 2005 Oct. 22(10):1040-51. [Medline].
Russell WR. The Traumatic Amnesias. London, England: Oxford University Press; 1971.
Watanitanon A, Lyons VH, Lele AV, et al. Clinical Epidemiology of Adults With Moderate Traumatic Brain Injury. Crit Care Med. 2018 Jan 23. [Medline].
Cuthbert JP, Corrigan JD, Harrison-Felix C, Coronado V, Dijkers MP, Heinemann AW, et al. Factors that predict acute hospitalization discharge disposition for adults with moderate to severe traumatic brain injury. Arch Phys Med Rehabil. 2011 May. 92(5):721-730.e3. [Medline].
Bogner JA, Corrigan JD, Mysiw WJ, et al. A comparison of substance abuse and violence in the prediction of long-term rehabilitation outcomes after traumatic brain injury. Arch Phys Med Rehabil. 2001 May. 82(5):571-7. [Medline].
Corrigan JD, Bogner JA, Mysiw WJ, et al. Life satisfaction after traumatic brain injury. J Head Trauma Rehabil. 2001 Dec. 16(6):543-55. [Medline].
Grauwmeijer E, Heijenbrok-Kal MH, Haitsma IK, Ribbers GM. A prospective study on employment outcome 3 years after moderate to severe traumatic brain injury. Arch Phys Med Rehabil. 2012 Jun. 93(6):993-9. [Medline].
King JT Jr, Carlier PM, Marion DW. Early Glasgow Outcome Scale scores predict long-term functional outcome in patients with severe traumatic brain injury. J Neurotrauma. 2005 Sep. 22(9):947-54. [Medline].
Chiaretti A, Antonelli A, Mastrangelo A, et al. Interleukin-6 and nerve growth factor upregulation correlates with improved outcome in children with severe traumatic brain injury. J Neurotrauma. Mar 2008. 25(3):225-34. [Medline].
Davis DP, Serrano JA, Vilke GM, et al. The predictive value of field versus arrival Glasgow Coma Scale score and TRISS calculations in moderate-to-severe traumatic brain injury. J Trauma. 2006 May. 60(5):985-90. [Medline].
Hiler M, Czosnyka M, Hutchinson P, et al. Predictive value of initial computerized tomography scan, intracranial pressure, and state of autoregulation in patients with traumatic brain injury. J Neurosurg. 2006 May. 104(5):731-7. [Medline].
Maas AI, Hukkelhoven CW, Marshall LF, et al. Prediction of outcome in traumatic brain injury with computed tomographic characteristics: a comparison between the computed tomographic classification and combinations of computed tomographic predictors. Neurosurgery. 2005 Dec. 57(6):1173-82; discussion 1173-82. [Medline].
Stein SC, Fabbri A, Servadei F, et al. A critical comparison of clinical decision instruments for computed tomographic scanning in mild closed traumatic brain injury in adolescents and adults. Ann Emerg Med. Mar 11 2008 [Epub ahead of print]. [Medline].
Badri S, Chen J, Barber J, Temkin NR, Dikmen SS, Chesnut RM, et al. Mortality and long-term functional outcome associated with intracranial pressure after traumatic brain injury. Intensive Care Med. 2012 Nov. 38(11):1800-9. [Medline].
Leitgeb J, Mauritz W, Brazinova A, Janciak I, Majdan M, Wilbacher I, et al. Outcome after severe brain trauma due to acute subdural hematoma. J Neurosurg. 2012 Aug. 117(2):324-33. [Medline].
Osterweil N. Brain metabolites predict severity, prognosis of TBI. Medscape Medical News. October 24, 2014. [Full Text].