National Pressure Ulcer Advisory Panel (NPUAP) announces a change in terminology from pressure ulcer to pressure injury and updates the stages of pressure injury. National Pressure Ulcer Advisory Panel. Available at http://www.npuap.org/national-pressure-ulcer-advisory-panel-npuap-announces-a-change-in-terminology-from-pressure-ulcer-to-pressure-injury-and-updates-the-stages-of-pressure-injury. April 13, 2016; Accessed: June 10, 2018.
NPUAP pressure injury stages. National Pressure Injury Advisory Panel. Available at https://cdn.ymaws.com/npiap.com/resource/resmgr/npuap_pressure_injury_stages.pdf. April 2016; Accessed: March 26, 2020.
Woolsey RM, McGarry JD. The cause, prevention, and treatment of pressure sores. Neurol Clin. 1991 Aug. 9(3):797-808. [Medline].
Abrussezze RS. Early assessment and prevention of pressure ulcers. Lee BY, ed. Chronic Ulcers of the Skin. New York: McGraw-Hill; 1985. 1-9.
Schweinberger MH, Roukis TS. Effectiveness of instituting a specific bed protocol in reducing complications associated with bed rest. J Foot Ankle Surg. 2010 Jul-Aug. 49(4):340-7. [Medline].
Zhao G, Hiltabidel E, Liu Y, Chen L, Liao Y. A cross-sectional descriptive study of pressure ulcer prevalence in a teaching hospital in China. Ostomy Wound Manage. 2010 Feb 1. 56(2):38-42. [Medline].
Pieper B, ed. Pressure Ulcers: Prevalence, Incidence, and Implications for the Future. Washington, DC: National Pressure Ulcer Advisory Panel; 2013.
Staas WE Jr, Cioschi HM. Pressure sores--a multifaceted approach to prevention and treatment. West J Med. 1991 May. 154(5):539-44. [Medline]. [Full Text].
Bergstrom N, Braden B. A prospective study of pressure sore risk among institutionalized elderly. J Am Geriatr Soc. 1992 Aug. 40(8):747-58. [Medline].
Bergstrom N, Bennett MA, Carlson CE, et al. Treatment of Pressure Ulcers. Clinical Practice Guideline Number 14. Agency for Health Care Policy and Research, Public Health Service. Rockville, MD: US Department of Health and Human Services; 1994. AHCPR Publication No. 95-0642.:
Frantz RA. Pressure ulcer costs in long term care. Decubitus. 1989 Aug. 2(3):56-7. [Medline].
Hibbs P. The economics of pressure ulcer prevention. Decubitus. 1988 Aug. 1(3):32-8. [Medline].
Pham B, Stern A, Chen W, Sander B, John-Baptiste A, Thein HH, et al. Preventing pressure ulcers in long-term care: a cost-effectiveness analysis. Arch Intern Med. 2011 Nov 14. 171(20):1839-47. [Medline].
Pham B, Teague L, Mahoney J, Goodman L, Paulden M, Poss J, et al. Early prevention of pressure ulcers among elderly patients admitted through emergency departments: a cost-effectiveness analysis. Ann Emerg Med. 2011 Nov. 58(5):468-78.e3. [Medline].
Bergstrom N. Panel for the Prediction and Prevention of Pressure Ulcers in Adults. Prediction and Prevention Clinical Practice Guideline, Number 3. Agency for Health Care Policy and Research, Public Health Service. AHCPR Publication No. 920047. Rockville, MD: US Department of Health and Human Services; 1992.
Leblebici B, Turhan N, Adam M, Akman MN. Clinical and epidemiologic evaluation of pressure ulcers in patients at a university hospital in Turkey. J Wound Ostomy Continence Nurs. 2007 Jul-Aug. 34(4):407-11. [Medline].
Daniel RK, Faibisoff B. Muscle coverage of pressure points--the role of myocutaneous flaps. Ann Plast Surg. 1982 Jun. 8(6):446-52. [Medline].
Paget J. Clinical lecture on bed sores. Students J Hosp Gaz. 1873. 1:144-7. [Medline].
Gefen A. Reswick and Rogers pressure-time curve for pressure ulcer risk. Part 1. Nurs Stand. 2009 Jul 15-21. 23(45):64, 66, 68 passim. [Medline].
Gefen A. Reswick and Rogers pressure-time curve for pressure ulcer risk. Part 2. Nurs Stand. 2009 Jul 22-28. 23(46):40-4. [Medline].
LINDAN O, GREENWAY RM, PIAZZA JM. PRESSURE DISTRIBUTION ON THE SURFACE OF THE HUMAN BODY. I. EVALUATION IN LYING AND SITTING POSITIONS USING A "BED OF SPRINGS AND NAILS". Arch Phys Med Rehabil. 1965 May. 46:378-85. [Medline].
Reuler JB, Cooney TG. The pressure sore: pathophysiology and principles of management. Ann Intern Med. 1981 May. 94(5):661-6. [Medline].
Le KM, Madsen BL, Barth PW, Ksander GA, Angell JB, Vistnes LM. An in-depth look at pressure sores using monolithic silicon pressure sensors. Plast Reconstr Surg. 1984 Dec. 74(6):745-56. [Medline].
Witkowski JA, Parish LC. Histopathology of the decubitus ulcer. J Am Acad Dermatol. 1982 Jun. 6(6):1014-21. [Medline].
Brandeis GH, Morris JN, Nash DJ, Lipsitz LA. The epidemiology and natural history of pressure ulcers in elderly nursing home residents. JAMA. 1990 Dec 12. 264(22):2905-9. [Medline].
Fogerty M, Guy J, Barbul A, Nanney LB, Abumrad NN. African Americans show increased risk for pressure ulcers: a retrospective analysis of acute care hospitals in America. Wound Repair Regen. 2009 Sep-Oct. 17(5):678-84. [Medline].
Manley MT. Incidence, contributory factors and costs of pressure sores. S Afr Med J. 1978 Feb 11. 53(6):217-22. [Medline].
Gerson LW. The incidence of pressure sores in active treatment hospitals. Int J Nurs Stud. 1975. 12(4):201-4. [Medline].
Shannon ML, Skorga P. Pressure ulcer prevalence in two general hospitals. Decubitus. 1989 Nov. 2(4):38-43. [Medline].
Meehan M. Multisite pressure ulcer prevalence survey. Decubitus. 1990 Nov. 3(4):14-7. [Medline].
Bergstrom N, Demuth PJ, Braden BJ. A clinical trial of the Braden Scale for Predicting Pressure Sore Risk. Nurs Clin North Am. 1987 Jun. 22(2):417-28. [Medline].
Robnett MK. The incidence of skin breakdown in a surgical intensive care unit. J Nurs Qual Assur. 1986 Nov. 1(1):77-81. [Medline].
Amlung SR, Miller WL, Bosley LM. The 1999 National Pressure Ulcer Prevalence Survey: a benchmarking approach. Adv Skin Wound Care. 2001 Nov-Dec. 14(6):297-301. [Medline].
Roberts BV, Goldstone LA. A survey of pressure sores in the over sixties on two orthopaedic wards. Int J Nurs Stud. 1979. 16(4):355-64. [Medline].
Versluysen M. How elderly patients with femoral fracture develop pressure sores in hospital. Br Med J (Clin Res Ed). 1986 May 17. 292(6531):1311-3. [Medline]. [Full Text].
Baumgarten M, Margolis DJ, Orwig DL, Shardell MD, Hawkes WG, Langenberg P, et al. Pressure ulcers in elderly patients with hip fracture across the continuum of care. J Am Geriatr Soc. 2009 May. 57(5):863-70. [Medline]. [Full Text].
Reed JW. Pressure ulcers in the elderly: prevention and treatment utilizing the team approach. Md State Med J. 1981 Nov. 30(11):45-50. [Medline].
Barbenel JC, Jordan MM, Nicol SM, Clark MO. Incidence of pressure-sores in the Greater Glasgow Health Board area. Lancet. 1977 Sep 10. 2(8037):548-50. [Medline].
Schols JM, Heyman H, Meijer EP. Nutritional support in the treatment and prevention of pressure ulcers: an overview of studies with an arginine enriched oral nutritional supplement. J Tissue Viability. 2009 Aug. 18(3):72-9. [Medline].
Berlowitz DR, Wilking SV. Risk factors for pressure sores. A comparison of cross-sectional and cohort-derived data. J Am Geriatr Soc. 1989 Nov. 37(11):1043-50. [Medline].
Kenkel JM. Pressure Sores (overview). Kenkel JM. Selected Read Plast Surg. Texas: Baylor University Medical Center; 1998. Vol 8, No 39: 1-29.
Klitzman B, Kalinowski C, Glasofer SL, Rugani L. Pressure ulcers and pressure relief surfaces. Clin Plast Surg. 1998 Jul. 25(3):443-50. [Medline].
Evans GR, Dufresne CR, Manson PN. Surgical correction of pressure ulcers in an urban center: is it efficacious?. Adv Wound Care. 1994 Jan. 7(1):40-6. [Medline].
Fuhrer MJ, Garber SL, Rintala DH, Clearman R, Hart KA. Pressure ulcers in community-resident persons with spinal cord injury: prevalence and risk factors. Arch Phys Med Rehabil. 1993 Nov. 74(11):1172-7. [Medline].
Basson MD, Burney RE. Defective wound healing in patients with paraplegia and quadriplegia. Surg Gynecol Obstet. 1982 Jul. 155(1):9-12. [Medline].
Regan MA, Teasell RW, Wolfe DL, Keast D, Mortenson WB, Aubut JA. A systematic review of therapeutic interventions for pressure ulcers after spinal cord injury. Arch Phys Med Rehabil. 2009 Feb. 90(2):213-31. [Medline]. [Full Text].
Okamoto GA, Lamers JV, Shurtleff DB. Skin breakdown in patients with myelomeningocele. Arch Phys Med Rehabil. 1983 Jan. 64(1):20-3. [Medline].
Basset A, Liautaud B, Ndiaye B. Dermatology of Black Skin. Oxford: Oxford University Press; 1986.
Lahmann NA, Dassen T, Poehler A, Kottner J. Pressure ulcer prevalence rates from 2002 to 2008 in German long-term care facilities. Aging Clin Exp Res. 2010 Apr. 22(2):152-6. [Medline].
Fogerty MD, Abumrad NN, Nanney L, Arbogast PG, Poulose B, Barbul A. Risk factors for pressure ulcers in acute care hospitals. Wound Repair Regen. 2008 Jan-Feb. 16(1):11-8. [Medline].
Paletta C, Bartell T, Shehadi S. Applications of the posterior thigh flap. Ann Plast Surg. 1993 Jan. 30(1):41-7. [Medline].
Howard DL, Taylor YJ. Racial and gender differences in pressure ulcer development among nursing home residents in the Southeastern United States. J Women Aging. 2009. 21(4):266-78. [Medline].
Dinsdale SM. Decubitus ulcers: role of pressure and friction in causation. Arch Phys Med Rehabil. 1974 Apr. 55(4):147-52. [Medline].
Allman RM. Pressure ulcers among the elderly. N Engl J Med. 1989 Mar 30. 320(13):850-3. [Medline].
Allman RM, Walker JM, Hart MK, Laprade CA, Noel LB, Smith CR. Air-fluidized beds or conventional therapy for pressure sores. A randomized trial. Ann Intern Med. 1987 Nov. 107(5):641-8. [Medline].
Maklebust J. Pressure ulcers: etiology and prevention. Nurs Clin North Am. 1987 Jun. 22(2):359-77. [Medline].
Doughty D. The process of wound healing: a nursing perspective. Prog Develop Ostomy Wound Care. 1990. 2:3-12.
Vaziri ND, Cesarior T, Mootoo K, Zeien L, Gordon S, Byrne C. Bacterial infections in patients with chronic renal failure: occurrence with spinal cord injury. Arch Intern Med. 1982 Jul. 142(7):1273-6. [Medline].
Peromet M, Labbe M, Yourassowsky E, Schoutens E. Anaerobic bacteria isolated from decubitus ulcers. Infection. 1973. 1(4):205-7. [Medline].
Deloach ED, Christy RS, Ruf LE, et al. Osteomyelitis underlying severe pressure sores. Contemp Surg. 1992. 40:25-32.
Deloach ED, DiBenedetto RJ, Womble L, Gilley JD. The treatment of osteomyelitis underlying pressure ulcers. Decubitus. 1992 Nov. 5(6):32-41. [Medline].
Yarkony GM. Pressure ulcers: a review. Arch Phys Med Rehabil. 1994 Aug. 75(8):908-17. [Medline].
Relander M, Palmer B. Recurrence of surgically treated pressure sores. Scand J Plast Reconstr Surg Hand Surg. 1988. 22(1):89-92. [Medline].
Stausberg J, Kiefer E. Classification of pressure ulcers: a systematic literature review. Stud Health Technol Inform. 2009. 146:511-5. [Medline].
Black J, Baharestani M, Cuddigan J, Dorner B, Edsberg L, Langemo D, et al. National Pressure Ulcer Advisory Panel's updated pressure ulcer staging system. Dermatol Nurs. 2007 Aug. 19(4):343-9; quiz 350. [Medline].
Copcu E. Marjolin's ulcer: a preventable complication of burns?. Plast Reconstr Surg. 2009 Jul. 124(1):156e-64e. [Medline].
Berkwits L, Yarkony GM, Lewis V. Marjolin's ulcer complicating a pressure ulcer: case report and literature review. Arch Phys Med Rehabil. 1986 Nov. 67(11):831-3. [Medline].
Mustoe T, Upton J, Marcellino V, Tun CJ, Rossier AB, Hachend HJ. Carcinoma in chronic pressure sores: a fulminant disease process. Plast Reconstr Surg. 1986 Jan. 77(1):116-21. [Medline].
Anthony JP, Mathes SJ, Alpert BS. The muscle flap in the treatment of chronic lower extremity osteomyelitis: results in patients over 5 years after treatment. Plast Reconstr Surg. 1991 Aug. 88(2):311-8. [Medline].
Evans GR, Lewis VL Jr, Manson PN, Loomis M, Vander Kolk CA. Hip joint communication with pressure sore: the refractory wound and the role of Girdlestone arthroplasty. Plast Reconstr Surg. 1993 Feb. 91(2):288-94. [Medline].
Lewis VL Jr, Bailey MH, Pulawski G, Kind G, Bashioum RW, Hendrix RW. The diagnosis of osteomyelitis in patients with pressure sores. Plast Reconstr Surg. 1988 Feb. 81(2):229-32. [Medline].
James GA, Swogger E, Wolcott R, Pulcini Ed, Secor P, Sestrich J, et al. Biofilms in chronic wounds. Wound Repair Regen. 2008 Jan-Feb. 16(1):37-44. [Medline].
Kirker KR, Secor PR, James GA, Fleckman P, Olerud JE, Stewart PS. Loss of viability and induction of apoptosis in human keratinocytes exposed to Staphylococcus aureus biofilms in vitro. Wound Repair Regen. 2009 Sep-Oct. 17(5):690-9. [Medline]. [Full Text].
Schierle CF, De la Garza M, Mustoe TA, Galiano RD. Staphylococcal biofilms impair wound healing by delaying reepithelialization in a murine cutaneous wound model. Wound Repair Regen. 2009 May-Jun. 17(3):354-9. [Medline].
Rhoads DD, Wolcott RD, Percival SL. Biofilms in wounds: management strategies. J Wound Care. 2008 Nov. 17(11):502-8. [Medline].
Knauer CJ. Management of malignant fungating breast lesions. Prog Develop Ostomy Wound Care. 1990. 2:3-11.
Gorecki C, Nixon J, Madill A, Firth J, Brown JM. What influences the impact of pressure ulcers on health-related quality of life? A qualitative patient-focused exploration of contributory factors. J Tissue Viability. 2012 Feb. 21(1):3-12. [Medline].
[Guideline] Qaseem A, Mir TP, Starkey M, Denberg TD. Risk assessment and prevention of pressure ulcers: a clinical practice guideline from the american college of physicians. Ann Intern Med. 2015 Mar 3. 162(5):359-69. [Medline].
[Guideline] Qaseem A, Humphrey LL, Forciea MA, Starkey M, Denberg TD. Treatment of pressure ulcers: a clinical practice guideline from the american college of physicians. Ann Intern Med. 2015 Mar 3. 162(5):370-9. [Medline].
Banks MD, Graves N, Bauer JD, Ash S. Cost effectiveness of nutrition support in the prevention of pressure ulcer in hospitals. Eur J Clin Nutr. 2013 Jan. 67(1):42-6. [Medline].
Cereda E, Gini A, Pedrolli C, Vanotti A. Disease-specific, versus standard, nutritional support for the treatment of pressure ulcers in institutionalized older adults: a randomized controlled trial. J Am Geriatr Soc. 2009 Aug. 57(8):1395-402. [Medline].
Beeckman D, Clays E, Van Hecke A, Vanderwee K, Schoonhoven L, Verhaeghe S. A multi-faceted tailored strategy to implement an electronic clinical decision support system for pressure ulcer prevention in nursing homes: a two-armed randomized controlled trial. Int J Nurs Stud. 2013 Apr. 50(4):475-86. [Medline].
Benbow M, Bateman S. Working towards clinical excellence Pressure ulcer prevention and management in primary and secondary care. J Wound Care. 2012 Sep. 21(9):S25-40. [Medline].
Allen V, Ryan DW, Murray A. Air-fluidized beds and their ability to distribute interface pressures generated between the subject and the bed surface. Physiol Meas. 1993 Aug. 14(3):359-64. [Medline].
Allen V, Ryan DW, Murray A. Potential for bed sores due to high pressures: influence of body sites, body position, and mattress design. Br J Clin Pract. 1993 Jul-Aug. 47(4):195-7. [Medline].
Maklebust JA, Mondoux L, Sieggreen M. Pressure relief characteristics of various support surfaces used in prevention and treatment of pressure ulcers. J Enterostomal Ther. 1986 May-Jun. 13(3):85-9. [Medline].
Patel UH, Jones JT, Babbs CF, Bourland JD, Graber GP. The evaluation of five specialized support surfaces by use of a pressure-sensitive mat. Decubitus. 1993 May. 6(3):28-31, 34, 36-7. [Medline].
Seiler WO, Allen S, Stähelin HB. Influence of the 30 degrees laterally inclined position and the 'super-soft' 3-piece mattress on skin oxygen tension on areas of maximum pressure--implications for pressure sore prevention. Gerontology. 1986. 32(3):158-66. [Medline].
Heyneman A, Vanderwee K, Grypdonck M, Defloor T. Effectiveness of two cushions in the prevention of heel pressure ulcers. Worldviews Evid Based Nurs. 2009. 6(2):114-20. [Medline].
Aronovitch SA. A retrospective study of the use of specialty beds in the medical and surgical intensive care units of a tertiary care facility. Decubitus. 1992 Jan. 5(1):36-42. [Medline].
Reddy N, Cochran G. Phenomenological theory underlying pressure-time relationship in decubitus ulcer formation. Fed Proc. 1979. 38:1153.
Thompson-Bishop JY, Mottola CM. Tissue interface pressure and estimated subcutaneous pressures of 11 different pressure-reducing support surfaces. Decubitus. 1992 Mar. 5(2):42-6, 48. [Medline].
McInnes E, Dumville JC, Jammali-Blasi A, Bell-Syer SE. Support surfaces for treating pressure ulcers. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2011 Dec 7. CD009490. [Medline].
Bryant R. Acute and Chronic Wounds: Nursing Management. St Louis: Mosby-Year Book; 1992.
Exton-Smith AN, Overstall PW, Wedgwood J, Wallace G. Use of the 'air wave system' to prevent pressure sores in hospital. Lancet. 1982 Jun 5. 1(8284):1288-90. [Medline].
Watanabe S, Yamada K, Ono S, Ishibashi Y. Skin changes in patients with amyotrophic lateral sclerosis: light and electron microscopic observations. J Am Acad Dermatol. 1987 Dec. 17(6):1006-12. [Medline].
Inman KJ, Sibbald WJ, Rutledge FS, Clark BJ. Clinical utility and cost-effectiveness of an air suspension bed in the prevention of pressure ulcers. JAMA. 1993 Mar 3. 269 (9):1139-43. [Medline].
Conine TA, Daechsel D, Lau MS. The role of alternating air and Silicore overlays in preventing decubitus ulcers. Int J Rehabil Res. 1990. 13(1):57-65. [Medline].
Jackson BS, Chagares R, Nee N, Freeman K. The effects of a therapeutic bed on pressure ulcers: an experimental study. J Enterostomal Ther. Nov-Dec 1988. 15(6):220-6.
Strauss MJ, Gong J, Gary BD, Kalsbeek WD, Spear S. The cost of home air-fluidized therapy for pressure sores. A randomized controlled trial. J Fam Pract. 1991 Jul. 33(1):52-9. [Medline].
Warner DJ. A clinical comparison of two pressure-reducing surfaces in the management of pressure ulcers. Decubitus. 1992 May. 5(3):52-5, 58-60, 62-4. [Medline].
Cullum N, McInnes E, Bell-Syer SE, Legood R. Support surfaces for pressure ulcer prevention. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2004. CD001735:
McInnes E, Jammali-Blasi A, Bell-Syer SE, Dumville JC, Cullum N. Support surfaces for pressure ulcer prevention. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2011 Apr 13. CD001735. [Medline].
Clark M, Hiskett G, Russell L. Evidence-based practice and support surfaces: are we throwing the baby out with the bath water?. J Wound Care. 2005 Nov. 14(10):455-8. [Medline].
University Hospital Consortium. Guidelines for the Use of Pressure Relief Devices in the Treatment and Prevention of Pressure Ulcers. Oak Brook, IL: University Hospital Consortium Technology Advancement Center; 1990.
Parish LC, Witkowski JA. Clinitron therapy and the decubitus ulcer: preliminary dermatologic studies. Int J Dermatol. 1980 Nov. 19(9):517-8. [Medline].
St. Clair M. Survey of the uses of the Pegasus airwave system in the United Kingdom. J Tissue Viabil. 1992. 12:9-16.
Crewe R. Problems of rubber ring nursing cushions and a clinical survey of alternative cushions for ill patients. Care Sci Pract. 1987. 5:9-11.
Andersen KE, Jensen O, Kvorning SA, Bach E. Decubitus prophylaxis: a prospective trial on the efficiency of alternating-pressure air-mattresses and water-mattresses. Acta Derm Venereol. 1983. 63 (3):227-30. [Medline].
Daechsel D, Conine TA. Special mattresses: effectiveness in preventing decubitus ulcers in chronic neurologic patients. Arch Phys Med Rehabil. 1985 Apr. 66(4):246-8. [Medline].
Jester J, Weaver V. A report of clinical investigation of various tissue support surfaces used for the prevention, early intervention and management of pressure ulcers. Ostomy Wound Manage. 1990 Jan-Feb. 26:39-45. [Medline].
Whitney JD, Fellows BJ, Larson E. Do mattresses make a difference?. J Gerontol Nurs. 1984 Sep. 10(9):20-5. [Medline].
LINDAN O. Etiology of decubitus ulcers: an experimental study. Arch Phys Med Rehabil. 1961 Nov. 42:774-83. [Medline].
DeLateur BJ, Berni R, Hangladarom T, Giaconi R. Wheelchair cushions designed to prevent pressure sores: an evaluation. Arch Phys Med Rehabil. 1976 Mar. 57(3):129-35. [Medline].
Fergson-Pell M, Cochran G, Cardi M, Trachtman L. A knowledge-based program for pressure sore prevention. Ann NY Acad Sci. 1986. 463:284-286.
Garber SL, Krouskop TA, Carter RE. A system for clinically evaluating wheelchair pressure-relief cushions. Am J Occup Ther. 1978 Oct. 32(9):565-70. [Medline].
VanEtten NK, Sexton P, Smith R. Development and implementation of a skin care program. Ostomy Wound Manage. 1990 Mar-Apr. 27:40-54. [Medline].
International Association of Enterostomal Therapy. Dermal wounds: pressure sores. Philosophy of the IAET. J Enterostomal Ther. 1988 Jan-Feb. 15 (1):4-17. [Medline].
Bergstrom N, Braden BJ, Laguzza A, Holman V. The Braden Scale for Predicting Pressure Sore Risk. Nurs Res. 1987 Jul-Aug. 36(4):205-10. [Medline].
Norton D. Calculating the risk: reflections on the Norton Scale. Decubitus. 1989 Aug. 2(3):24-31. [Medline].
Norton D, McLaren R, Exton-Smith A. An Investigation of Geriatric Nursing Problems in Hospital. London: Churchill Livingstone; 1975.
Smoot EC 3rd. Clinitron bed therapy hazards. Plast Reconstr Surg. 1986 Jan. 77(1):165. [Medline].
Nimit K. Guidelines for home air-fluidized bed therapy, 1989. Health Technol Assess Rep. 1989. 1-11. [Medline].
Bruce TA, Shever LL, Tschannen D, Gombert J. Reliability of pressure ulcer staging: a review of literature and 1 institution's strategy. Crit Care Nurs Q. 2012 Jan-Mar. 35(1):85-101. [Medline].
Black JM, Black SB. Surgical management of pressure ulcers. Nurs Clin North Am. 1987 Jun. 22(2):429-38. [Medline].
Cooper DM. Challenge of open wound assessment in the home setting. Prog Develop Ostomy Wound Care. 1990. 2:11-18.
Rodeheaver GT, Kurtz L, Kircher BJ, Edlich RF. Pluronic F-68: a promising new skin wound cleanser. Ann Emerg Med. 1980 Nov. 9(11):572-6. [Medline].
Johnson AR, White AC, McNalley B. Comparison of common topical agents for wound treatment: cytotoxicity for human fibroblast in culture. Wounds. 1989. 1:186-92.
Bryant CA, Rodeheaver GT, Reem EM, Nichter LS, Kenney JG, Edlich RF. Search for a nontoxic surgical scrub solution for periorbital lacerations. Ann Emerg Med. 1984 May. 13(5):317-21. [Medline].
Hutchinson JJ, McGuckin M. Occlusive dressings: a microbiologic and clinical review. Am J Infect Control. 1990 Aug. 18 (4):257-68. [Medline].
Krasner D. Shifting paradigms for wound care: dressing decisions; multidisciplinary care; effectiveness. Portnow J, ed. Wound Care. Vol 1. Durable Medical Equipment Review;: . 1994. 12.
Gilchrist T, Martin AM. Wound treatment with Sorbsan--an alginate fibre dressing. Biomaterials. 1983 Oct. 4(4):317-20. [Medline].
McMullen D. Clinical experience with a calcium alginate dressing. Dermatol Nurs. 1991 Aug. 3(4):216-9, 270. [Medline].
Ho CH, Bensitel T, Wang X, Bogie KM. Pulsatile lavage for the enhancement of pressure ulcer healing: a randomized controlled trial. Phys Ther. 2012 Jan. 92(1):38-48. [Medline].
Werdin F, Tennenhaus M, Schaller HE, Rennekampff HO. Evidence-based management strategies for treatment of chronic wounds. Eplasty. 2009 Jun 4. 9:e19. [Medline]. [Full Text].
Flemming K, Cullum N. Electromagnetic therapy for the treatment of pressure sores. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2001. CD002930. [Medline].
Levine SP, Kett RL, Gross MD, Wilson BA, Cederna PS, Juni JE. Blood flow in the gluteus maximus of seated individuals during electrical muscle stimulation. Arch Phys Med Rehabil. 1990 Aug. 71(9):682-6. [Medline].
Rees RS, Robson MC, Smiell JM, Perry BH. Becaplermin gel in the treatment of pressure ulcers: a phase II randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled study. Wound Repair Regen. 1999 May-Jun. 7(3):141-7. [Medline].
Landi F, Aloe L, Russo A, Cesari M, Onder G, Bonini S, et al. Topical treatment of pressure ulcers with nerve growth factor: a randomized clinical trial. Ann Intern Med. 2003 Oct 21. 139 (8):635-41. [Medline].
Falanga V, Zitelli JA, Eaglstein WH. Wound healing. J Am Acad Dermatol. 1988 Sep. 19(3):559-63. [Medline].
Salcido R, Carney J, Fisher S, et al. A reliable animal model of pressure sore development: The role of free radicals. J Am Paraplegia Soc. 1993. 16:61.
Salcido R, Donofrio JC, Fisher SB, LeGrand EK, Dickey K, Carney JM, et al. Histopathology of pressure ulcers as a result of sequential computer-controlled pressure sessions in a fuzzy rat model. Adv Wound Care. 1994 Sep. 7(5):23-4, 26, 28 passim. [Medline].
Salcido R, Fisher SB, Donofrio JC, Bieschke M, Knapp C, Liang R, et al. An animal model and computer-controlled surface pressure delivery system for the production of pressure ulcers. J Rehabil Res Dev. 1995 May. 32(2):149-61. [Medline].
Ford CN, Reinhard ER, Yeh D, Syrek D, De Las Morenas A, Bergman SB, et al. Interim analysis of a prospective, randomized trial of vacuum-assisted closure versus the healthpoint system in the management of pressure ulcers. Ann Plast Surg. 2002 Jul. 49(1):55-61; discussion 61. [Medline].
Evans D, Land L. Topical negative pressure for treating chronic wounds. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2001. CD001898. [Medline].
Gupta S, Baharestani M, Baranoski S, de Leon J, Engel SJ, Mendez-Eastman S, et al. Guidelines for managing pressure ulcers with negative pressure wound therapy. Adv Skin Wound Care. 2004 Nov-Dec. 17 Suppl 2:1-16. [Medline].
Niezgoda JA. Combining negative pressure wound therapy with other wound management modalities. Ostomy Wound Manage. 2005 Feb. 51 (2A Suppl):36S-38S. [Medline].
Mendez-Eastman S. Guidelines for using negative pressure wound therapy. Adv Skin Wound Care. 2001 Nov-Dec. 14(6):314-22; quiz 324-5. [Medline].
Anthony JP, Huntsman WT, Mathes SJ. Changing trends in the management of pelvic pressure ulcers: a 12-year review. Decubitus. 1992 May. 5(3):44-7, 50-1. [Medline].
Becker H. The distally-based gluteus maximus muscle flap. Plast Reconstr Surg. 1979 May. 63(5):653-6. [Medline].
Bruck JC, Büttemeyer R, Grabosch A, Gruhl L. More arguments in favor of myocutaneous flaps for the treatment of pelvic pressure sores. Ann Plast Surg. 1991 Jan. 26(1):85-8. [Medline].
Fincham JE. Smoking cessation: treatment options and the pharmacist's role. Am Pharm. 1992 May. NS32(5):62-70. [Medline].
Read RC. Presidential address. Systemic effects of smoking. Am J Surg. 1984 Dec. 148(6):706-11. [Medline].
Brand P. Pressure sores, the problem. Kenedi R, Cowden J, Scales J, eds. Bed Sore Biomechanics. London: MacMillan Press; 1976. 19-23.
Sanchez S, Eamegdool S, Conway H. Surgical treatment of decubitus ulcers in paraplegics. Plast Reconstr Surg. 1969 Jan. 43(1):25-8. [Medline].
EXTON-SMITH AN, SHERWIN RW. The prevention of pressure sores. Significance of spontaneous bodily movements. Lancet. 1961 Nov 18. 2 (7212):1124-6. [Medline].
Kroll SS, Rosenfield L. Perforator-based flaps for low posterior midline defects. Plast Reconstr Surg. 1988 Apr. 81(4):561-6. [Medline].
Vyas SC, Binns JH, Wilson AN. Thoracolumbar-sacral flaps in the treatment of sacral pressure sores. Plast Reconstr Surg. 1980 Feb. 65(2):159-63. [Medline].
Daniel RK, Hall EJ, MacLeod MK. Pressure sores-a reappraisal. Ann Plast Surg. 1979 Jul. 3(1):53-63. [Medline].
Mathes SJ, Feng LJ, Hunt TK. Coverage of the infected wound. Ann Surg. 1983 Oct. 198(4):420-9. [Medline]. [Full Text].
Vasconez LO, Schneider WJ, Jurkiewicz MJ. Pressure sores. Curr Probl Surg. 1977 Apr. 14 (4):1-62. [Medline].
He J, Xu H, Wang T, Ma S, Dong J. Treatment of complex ischial pressure sores with free partial lateral latissimus dorsi musculocutaneous flaps in paraplegic patients. J Plast Reconstr Aesthet Surg. 2012 May. 65(5):634-9. [Medline].
Lin H, Hou C, Chen A, Xu Z. Treatment of ischial pressure sores using a modified gracilis myofasciocutaneous flap. J Reconstr Microsurg. 2010 Apr. 26(3):153-7. [Medline].
Gould WL, Montero N, Cukic J, Hagerty RC, Hester TR. The "split" gluteus maximus musculocutaneous flap. Plast Reconstr Surg. 1994 Feb. 93(2):330-6. [Medline].
Koshima I, Moriguchi T, Soeda S, Kawata S, Ohta S, Ikeda A. The gluteal perforator-based flap for repair of sacral pressure sores. Plast Reconstr Surg. 1993 Apr. 91(4):678-83. [Medline].
Hill HL, Brown RG, Jurkiewicz MJ. The transverse lumbosacral back flap. Plast Reconstr Surg. 1978 Aug. 62(2):177-84. [Medline].
Nahai F, Silverton JS, Hill HL, Vasconez LO. The tensor fascia lata musculocutaneous flap. Ann Plast Surg. 1978 Jul. 1(4):372-9. [Medline].
Wound, Ostomy and Continence Nurses Society. Guideline for Prevention and Management of Pressure Ulcers (Injuries). Mt Laurel, NJ: Wound, Ostomy and Continence Nurses Society; 2016.
WOCN Society Position Paper: Avoidable versus unavoidable pressure ulcers (injuries). Wound, Ostomy and Continence Nurses Society. Available at https://cdn.ymaws.com/www.wocn.org/resource/resmgr/publications/Avoidable_vs._Unavoidable_Pr.pdf. February 22, 2017; Accessed: June 11, 2018.
Bozzetti F, Terno G, Longoni C. Parenteral hyperalimentation and wound healing. Surg Gynecol Obstet. 1975 Nov. 141(5):712-4. [Medline].
Schoonhoven L, Grobbee DE, Donders AR, Algra A, Grypdonck MH, Bousema MT, et al. Prediction of pressure ulcer development in hospitalized patients: a tool for risk assessment. Qual Saf Health Care. 2006 Feb. 15 (1):65-70. [Medline]. [Full Text].
Walton-Geer PS. Prevention of pressure ulcers in the surgical patient. AORN J. 2009 Mar. 89(3):538-48; quiz 549-51. [Medline].
Saleh M, Anthony D, Parboteeah S. The impact of pressure ulcer risk assessment on patient outcomes among hospitalised patients. J Clin Nurs. 2009 Jul. 18(13):1923-9. [Medline].
Kosiak M. Prevention and rehabilitation of pressure ulcers. Decubitus. 1991 May. 4 (2):60-2, 64, 66 passim. [Medline].
Smith AM, Malone JA. Preventing pressure ulcers in institutionalized elders: assessing the effects of small, unscheduled shifts in body position. Decubitus. 1990 Nov. 3(4):20-4. [Medline].
Milne CT, Trigilia D, Houle TL, Delong S, Rosenblum D. Reducing pressure ulcer prevalence rates in the long-term acute care setting. Ostomy Wound Manage. 2009 Apr. 55(4):50-9. [Medline].
