What causes hypercalcemia in primary hyperparathyroidism?

1. Wermers RA, Khosla S, Atkinson EJ, Achenbach SJ, Oberg AL, Grant CS. Incidence of primary hyperparathyroidism in Rochester, Minnesota, 1993-2001: an update on the changing epidemiology of the disease. J Bone Miner Res. 2006 Jan. 21(1):171-7. [Medline].

2. Fraker DL, Harsono H, Lewis R. Minimally invasive parathyroidectomy: benefits and requirements of localization, diagnosis, and intraoperative PTH monitoring. Long-term results. World J Surg. 2009 Sep 10. [Medline].

3. Agarwal SK, Kester MB, Debelenko LV, et al. Germline mutations of the MEN1 gene in familial multiple endocrine neoplasia type 1 and related states. Hum Mol Genet. 1997 Jul. 6(7):1169-75. [Medline].

4. Ejlsmark-Svensson H, Sikjaer T, Webb SM, Rejnmark L, Rolighed L. Health related quality of life improves one year after parathyroidectomy in primary hyperparathyroidism: A prospective cohort study. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf). 2018 Sep 29. [Medline].

5. Bilezikian JP, Silverberg SJ. Clinical practice. Asymptomatic primary hyperparathyroidism. N Engl J Med. 2004 Apr 22. 350(17):1746-51.

6. Walker MD, Fleischer J, Rundek T, et al. Carotid vascular abnormalities in primary hyperparathyroidism. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2009 Sep 15. [Medline]. [Full Text].

7. Grey A, Lucas J, Horne A, Gamble G, Davidson JS, Reid IR. Vitamin D repletion in patients with primary hyperparathyroidism and coexistent vitamin D insufficiency. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2005 Apr. 90 (4):2122-6. [Medline]. [Full Text].

8. Institute of Medicine, Food and Nutrition Board, Committee to Review Dietary Reference Intakes for Vitamin D and Calcium. Ross AC, Taylor CL, Yaktine AL, Del Valle HB, eds. Dietary Reference Intakes for Calcium and Vitamin D. Washington, DC: National Academies Press; 2011.

9. Van Husen R, Kim LT. Accuracy of surgeon-performed ultrasound in parathyroid localization. World J Surg. 2004 Nov. 28(11):1122-6. [Medline].

10. Solorzano CC, Carneiro-Pla DM, Irvin GL 3rd. Surgeon-performed ultrasonography as the initial and only localizing study in sporadic primary hyperparathyroidism. J Am Coll Surg. 2006 Jan. 202(1):18-24. [Medline].

11. Siperstein A, Berber E, Barbosa GF, Tsinberg M, Greene AB, Mitchell J, et al. Predicting the success of limited exploration for primary hyperparathyroidism using ultrasound, sestamibi, and intraoperative parathyroid hormone: analysis of 1158 cases. Ann Surg. 2008 Sep. 248(3):420-8. [Medline].

12. Soon PS, Delbridge LW, Sywak MS, Barraclough BM, Edhouse P, Sidhu SB. Surgeon performed ultrasound facilitates minimally invasive parathyroidectomy by the focused lateral mini-incision approach. World J Surg. 2008 May. 32(5):766-71. [Medline].

13. Rodgers SE, Hunter GJ, Hamberg LM, Schellingerhout D, Doherty DB, Ayers GD, et al. Improved preoperative planning for directed parathyroidectomy with 4-dimensional computed tomography. Surgery. 2006 Dec. 140(6):932-40; discussion 940-1. [Medline].

14. Eichhorn-Wharry LI, Carlin AM, Talpos GB. Mild hypercalcemia: an indication to select 4-dimensional computed tomography scan for preoperative localization of parathyroid adenomas. Am J Surg. 2011 Mar. 201(3):334-8; discussion 338. [Medline].

15. Ramirez AG, Shada AL, Martin AN, et al. Clinical efficacy of 2-phase versus 4-phase computed tomography for localization in primary hyperparathyroidism. Surgery. 2016 Jun 11. [Medline].

16. Thimmappa V, Smith A, Wood J, Shires CB, Langsdon S, Sebelik M. Management protocol for primary hyperparathyroidism in a single institution: utility of surgeon performed ultrasound. Gland Surg. 2018 Aug. 7 (Suppl 1):S53-8. [Medline]. [Full Text].

17. [Guideline] Bilezikian JP, Brandi ML, Eastell R, et al. Guidelines for the management of asymptomatic primary hyperparathyroidism: summary statement from the Fourth International Workshop. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2014 Oct. 99 (10):3561-9. [Medline]. [Full Text].

18. [Guideline] The American Association of Clinical Endocrinologists and the American Association of Endocrine Surgeons position statement on the diagnosis and management of primary hyperparathyroidism. Endocr Pract. 2005 Jan-Feb. 11(1):49-54. [Medline].

19. Sharata A, Kelly TL, Rozenfeld Y, et al. Management of Primary Hyperparathyroidism: Can We Do Better?. Am Surg. 2017 Jan 1. 83 (1):64-70. [Medline].

20. Chow CC, Chan WB, Li JK, et al. Oral alendronate increases bone mineral density in postmenopausal women with primary hyperparathyroidism. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2003 Feb. 88(2):581-7. [Medline].

21. Parker CR, Blackwell PJ, Fairbairn KJ, Hosking DJ. Alendronate in the treatment of primary hyperparathyroid-related osteoporosis: a 2-year study. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2002 Oct. 87(10):4482-9. [Medline].

22. De Luca F, Baron J. Molecular biology and clinical importance of the Ca(2+)-sensing receptor. Curr Opin Pediatr. 1998 Aug. 10(4):435-40. [Medline].

23. Strippoli GF, Tong A, Palmer SC, Elder G, Craig JC. Calcimimetics for secondary hyperparathyroidism in chronic kidney disease patients. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2006. (4):CD006254. [Medline].

24. Boggs JE, Irvin GL, Molinari AS, Deriso GT. Intraoperative parathyroid hormone monitoring as an adjunct to parathyroidectomy. Surgery. 1996 Dec. 120(6):954-8. [Medline].

25. Gordon LL, Snyder WH, Wians F, et al. The validity of quick intraoperative parathyroid hormone assay: an evaluation in seventy-two patients based on gross morphologic criteria. Surgery. 1999 Dec. 126(6):1030-5. [Medline].

26. Greene AB, Butler RS, McIntyre S, et al. National trends in parathyroid surgery from 1998 to 2008: a decade of change. J Am Coll Surg. 2009 Sep. 209(3):332-43. [Medline].

27. Baumann DS, Wells SA Jr. Parathyroid autotransplantation. Surgery. 1993 Feb. 113(2):130-3. [Medline].

28. Coston SD, Pelton JJ. Success of cervical exploration for patients with asymptomatic primary hyperparathyroidism. Am J Surg. 1999 Jan. 177(1):69-74. [Medline].

29. Lew JI, Irvin GL 3rd. Focused parathyroidectomy guided by intra-operative parathormone monitoring does not miss multiglandular disease in patients with sporadic primary hyperparathyroidism: a 10-year outcome. Surgery. 2009 Dec. 146(6):1021-7. [Medline].

30. Biskobing DM. Significance of elevated parathyroid hormone after parathyroidectomy. Endocr Pract. 2010 Jan-Feb. 16(1):112-7. [Medline].

31. Block GA, Bushinsky DA, Cunningham J, Drueke TB, Ketteler M, Kewalramani R, et al. Effect of Etelcalcetide vs Placebo on Serum Parathyroid Hormone in Patients Receiving Hemodialysis With Secondary Hyperparathyroidism: Two Randomized Clinical Trials. JAMA. 2017 Jan 10. 317 (2):146-55. [Medline]. [Full Text].

32. Forrest KY, Stuhldreher WL. Prevalence and correlates of vitamin D deficiency in US adults. Nutr Res. 2011 Jan. 31 (1):48-54. [Medline].

33. Kidney Disease: Improving Global Outcomes (KDIGO) CKD-MBD Work Group. KDIGO clinical practice guideline for the diagnosis, evaluation, prevention, and treatment of Chronic Kidney Disease-Mineral and Bone Disorder (CKD-MBD). Kidney Int Suppl. 2009 Aug. S1-130. [Medline].

34. Lung BE, Komatsu DEE. Calcitriol. 2018 Jan. [Medline]. [Full Text].

35. Block GA, Bushinsky DA, Cheng S, et al. Effect of Etelcalcetide vs Cinacalcet on Serum Parathyroid Hormone in Patients Receiving Hemodialysis With Secondary Hyperparathyroidism: A Randomized Clinical Trial. JAMA. 2017 Jan 10. 317 (2):156-64. [Medline]. [Full Text].

36. Effect of Cinacalcet on Cardiovascular Disease in Patients Undergoing Dialysis. N Engl J Med. 2012 Nov 3. [Medline].

37. Hsu YH, Yu HY, Chen HJ, Li TC, Hsu CC, Kao CH. The Risk of Peripheral Arterial Disease after Parathyroidectomy in Patients with End-Stage Renal Disease. PLoS One. 2016. 11 (6):e0156863. [Medline]. [Full Text].

38. van der Plas WY, Dulfer RR, Engelsman AF, et al. Effect of parathyroidectomy and cinacalcet on quality of life in patients with end-stage renal disease-related hyperparathyroidism: a systematic review. Nephrol Dial Transplant. 2017 Nov 1. 32 (11):1902-8. [Medline].

39. Rothmund M, Wagner PK, Schark C. Subtotal parathyroidectomy versus total parathyroidectomy and autotransplantation in secondary hyperparathyroidism: a randomized trial. World J Surg. 1991 Nov-Dec. 15(6):745-50. [Medline].

40. Rayes N, Seehofer D, Schindler R, et al. Long-term results of subtotal vs total parathyroidectomy without autotransplantation in kidney transplant recipients. Arch Surg. 2008 Aug. 143 (8):756-61; discussion 761. [Medline]. [Full Text].

41. Conzo G, Perna A, Candela G, et al. Long-term outcomes following "presumed" total parathyroidectomy for secondary hyperparathyroidism of chronic kidney disease. G Chir. 2012 Nov-Dec. 33 (11-12):379-82. [Medline].

42. Schlosser K, Bartsch DK, Diener MK, et al. Total Parathyroidectomy With Routine Thymectomy and Autotransplantation Versus Total Parathyroidectomy Alone for Secondary Hyperparathyroidism: Results of a Nonconfirmatory Multicenter Prospective Randomized Controlled Pilot Trial. Ann Surg. 2016 Nov. 264 (5):745-53. [Medline].

43. Hirai T, Nakashima A, Takasugi N, Yorioka N. Association of nodular hyperplasia with resistance to cinacalcet therapy for secondary hyperparathyroidism in hemodialysis patients. Ther Apher Dial. 2010 Dec. 14(6):577-82. [Medline].

44. Okada M, Tominaga Y, Izumi K, Nobata H, Yamamoto T, Hiramitsu T, et al. Tertiary hyperparathyroidism resistant to cinacalcet treatment. Ther Apher Dial. 2011 Jun. 15 Suppl 1:33-7. [Medline].

45. Yu Z, Gu L, Pang H, Fang Y, Yan H, Fang W. Sodium thiosulfate: an emerging treatment for calciphylaxis in dialysis patients. Case Rep Nephrol Dial. 2015 Jan-Apr. 5 (1):77-82. [Medline]. [Full Text].

46. Felsenfeld AJ. Considerations for the treatment of secondary hyperparathyroidism in renal failure. J Am Soc Nephrol. 1997 Jun. 8 (6):993-1004. [Medline]. [Full Text].

47. Switzer NJ, Marcil G, Prasad S, et al. Long-term hypovitaminosis D and secondary hyperparathyroidism outcomes of the Roux-en-Y gastric bypass: a systematic review. Obes Rev. 2017 May. 18 (5):560-6. [Medline].

48. Goldenstein PT, Elias RM, Pires de Freitas do Carmo L, et al. Parathyroidectomy improves survival in patients with severe hyperparathyroidism: a comparative study. PLoS One. 2013. 8 (8):e68870. [Medline]. [Full Text].

Lawrence Kim, MD, FACS, FACE Professor, Department of Surgery, Division of Surgical Oncology and Endocrine Surgery, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill School of Medicine

Lawrence Kim, MD, FACS, FACE is a member of the following medical societies: American Association of Clinical Endocrinologists, American Association of Endocrine Surgeons, American College of Surgeons, American Thyroid Association, Association for Academic Surgery, Association of VA Surgeons, International Association of Endocrine Surgeons, Society of Surgical Oncology, Society of University Surgeons

Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

Elizabeth H Harris, MD, FACE Clinical Assistant Professor, Division of Endocrinology, Department of Medicine, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill School of Medicine

Elizabeth H Harris, MD, FACE is a member of the following medical societies: American Association of Clinical Endocrinologists, American Diabetes Association, Endocrine Society

Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

Michelle Whittier Krause, MD, MPH Associate Professor of Medicine, Division of Nephrology, University of Arkansas for Medical Sciences

Michelle Whittier Krause, MD, MPH is a member of the following medical societies: American Society of Nephrology, International Society of Nephrology, National Kidney Foundation

Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

Francisco Talavera, PharmD, PhD Adjunct Assistant Professor, University of Nebraska Medical Center College of Pharmacy; Editor-in-Chief, Medscape Drug Reference

Disclosure: Received salary from Medscape for employment. for: Medscape.

Don S Schalch, MD Professor Emeritus, Department of Internal Medicine, Division of Endocrinology, University of Wisconsin Hospitals and Clinics

Don S Schalch, MD is a member of the following medical societies: American Diabetes Association, American Federation for Medical Research, Central Society for Clinical and Translational Research, Endocrine Society

Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

Romesh Khardori, MD, PhD, FACP Professor of Endocrinology, Director of Training Program, Division of Endocrinology, Diabetes and Metabolism, Strelitz Diabetes and Endocrine Disorders Institute, Department of Internal Medicine, Eastern Virginia Medical School

Romesh Khardori, MD, PhD, FACP is a member of the following medical societies: American Association of Clinical Endocrinologists, American College of Physicians, American Diabetes Association, Endocrine Society

Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

Daniel Einhorn, MD, FACP, FACE Medical Director, Scripps/Whittier Diabetes Institute; Associate Clinical Professor of Medicine, University of California, San Diego, School of Medicine

Daniel Einhorn, MD, FACP, FACE is a member of the following medical societies: Alpha Omega Alpha, American College of Physicians, Phi Beta Kappa, Society of Nuclear Medicine and Molecular Imaging

Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

Vitaly Kantorovich, MD Assistant Professor and Director of the UAMS Weight Control Program, Division of Endocrinology and Metabolism, University of Arkansas for Medical Sciences and Staff Physician, Central Arkansas Veterans Healthcare System

Vitaly Kantorovich, MD is a member of the following medical societies: The Endocrine Society

Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

Antoine Makdissi, MD Assistant Professor of Medicine, University of Arkansas for Medical Sciences College of Medicine

Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.