What is the pathophysiology of pituitary apoplexy?

1. Nawar RN, AbdelMannan D, Selman WR, Arafah BM. Pituitary tumor apoplexy: a review. J Intensive Care Med. 2008 Mar-Apr. 23(2):75-90. [Medline].

2. Mohr G, Hardy J. Hemorrhage, necrosis, and apoplexy in pituitary adenomas. Surg Neurol. 1982 Sep. 18(3):181-9. [Medline].

3. Kurisu K, Kawabori M, Niiya Y, Ohta Y, Mabuchi S, Houkin K. Pituitary apoplexy manifesting as massive intracerebral hemorrhage. Case report. Neurol Med Chir (Tokyo). 2012. 52(8):587-90. [Medline].

4. Culpin E, Crank M, Igra M, Connolly DJA, Dimitri P, Mirza S, et al. Pituitary tumour apoplexy within prolactinomas in children: a more aggressive condition?. Pituitary. 2018 Oct. 21 (5):474-479. [Medline].

5. Giritharan S, Gnanalingham K, Kearney T. Pituitary apoplexy - bespoke patient management allows good clinical outcome. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf). 2016 Sep. 85 (3):415-22. [Medline].

6. Mou C, Han T, Zhao H, Wang S, Qu Y. Clinical features and immunohistochemical changes of pituitary apoplexy. J Clin Neurosci. 2009 Jan. 16(1):64-8. [Medline].

7. Simsek Bagir G, Civi S, Kardes O, Kayaselcuk F, Ertorer ME. Stubborn hiccups as a sign of massive apoplexy in a naive acromegaly patient with pituitary macroadenoma. Endocrinol Diabetes Metab Case Rep. 2017. 2017:[Medline].

8. Bahmani Kashkouli M, Khalatbari MR, Yahyavi ST, Borghei-Razavi H, Soltan-Sanjari M. Pituitary apoplexy presenting as acute painful isolated unilateral third cranial nerve palsy. Arch Iran Med. 2008 Jul. 11(4):466-8. [Medline].

9. Hori A. Suprasellar peri-infundibular ectopic adenohypophysis in fetal and adult brains. J Neurosurg. 1985 Jul. 63(1):113-5. [Medline].

10. Ly S, Naman A, Chaufour-Higel B, Patey M, Arndt C, Delemer B, et al. Pituitary apoplexy and rivaroxaban. Pituitary. 2017 Aug 22. [Medline].

11. Okuda O, Umezawa H, Miyaoka M. Pituitary apoplexy caused by endocrine stimulation tests: a case report. Surg Neurol. 1994 Jul. 42(1):19-22. [Medline].

12. Silberstein L, Johnston C, Bhagat A, Tibi L, Harrison J. Pituitary apoplexy during induction chemotherapy for acute myeloid leukaemia. Br J Haematol. 2008 Oct. 143(2):151. [Medline].

13. Thurtell MJ, Besser M, Halmagyi GM. Pituitary apoplexy causing isolated blindness after cardiac bypass surgery. Arch Ophthalmol. 2008 Apr. 126(4):576-8. [Medline].

14. Brar KS, Garg MK. High altitude-induced pituitary apoplexy. Singapore Med J. 2012 Jun. 53(6):e117-9. [Medline].

15. Kumar V, Kataria R, Mehta VS. Dengue hemorrhagic fever: A rare cause of pituitary tumor hemorrhage and reversible vision loss. Indian J Ophthalmol. Jul-Aug /2011. 59:311-2. [Medline].

16. Kruljac I, Cerina V, Pecina HI, et al. Pituitary metastasis presenting as ischemic pituitary apoplexy following heparin-induced thrombocytopenia. Endocr Pathol. 2012 Dec. 23(4):264-7. [Medline].

17. Vaphiades M. The "pituitary ring sign": An MRI sign of pituitary apoplexy. Neuro-ophthalmology. 2007. 31:111-6.

18. Weisberg LA. Pituitary apoplexy. Association of degenerative change in pituitary ademona with radiotherapy and detection by cerebral computed tomography. Am J Med. 1977 Jul. 63(1):109-15. [Medline].

19. Ahmed SK, Semple PL. Cerebral ischemia in pituitary apoplexy. Acta Neurochir. 2008. 150:1193-6.

20. Pineyro MM, Furtenbach P, Lima R, Wajskopf S, Sgarbi N, Pisabarro R. Brain and Optic Chiasm Herniation into Sella after Pituitary Tumor Apoplexy. Front Endocrinol (Lausanne). 2017. 8:192. [Medline].

21. Chokyu I, Tsuyuguchi N, Goto T, Chokyu K, Chokyu M, Ohata K. Pituitary apoplexy causing internal carotid artery occlusion--case report. Neurol Med Chir (Tokyo). 2011. 51:48-51. [Medline].

22. Madhusudhan S, Madhusudhan TR, Haslett RS, Sinha A. Pituitary apoplexy following shoulder arthroplasty: a case report. J Med Case Rep. 2011 Jul 5. 5:284. [Medline]. [Full Text].

23. Mohindra S, Kovai P, Chhabra R. Fatal Bilateral ACA Territory Infarcts after Pituitary Apoplexy: A Case Report and Literature Review. Skull Base. 2010 Jul. 20(4):285-8. [Medline]. [Full Text].

24. Briet C, Salenave S, Chanson P. Pituitary Apoplexy. Endocrinol Metab Clin North Am. 2015 Mar. 44(1):199-209. [Medline].

25. Binning MJ, Liu JK, Gannon BS, Osborn AG, Couldwell WT. Hemorrhagic and nonhemorrhagic Rathke cleft cysts mimicking pituitary apoplexy. J Neurosurg. 2008. 108:3-8.

26. Kaplun J, Fratila C, Ferenczi A, Yang WC, Lantos G, Fleckman AM. Sequential pituitary MR imaging in Sheehan syndrome: report of 2 cases. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol. 2008 May. 29(5):941-3. [Medline].

27. Liu S, Wang X, Liu YH, Mao Q. Spontaneous disappearance of the pituitary macroadenoma after apoplexy: a case report and review of the literature. Neurol India. 2012 Sep-Oct. 60(5):530-2. [Medline].

28. Lavalee G, Morcos R, Palardy J, Aube M, Gilbert D. MR of nonhemorrhagic post-partum pituitary apoplexy. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol. 1995. 16:1939-41.

29. Kleinschmidt-DeMasters BK, Lillehei KO. Pathological correlates of pituitary adenomas presenting with apoplexy. Hum Pathol. 1998 Nov. 29 (11):1255-65. [Medline].

30. Vaphiades MS. The "pituitary ring sign": An MRI sign of pituitary apoplexy. Neuro-Ophthalmology. 2007. 31:111-6.

31. Vaphiades MS, Simmons D, Archer RL, Stringer W. Sheehan syndrome: a splinter of the mind. Surv Ophthalmol. 2003 Mar-Apr. 48 (2):230-3. [Medline].

32. Arita K, Kurisu K, Tominaga A, Sugiyama K, Ikawa F, Yoshioka H, et al. Thickening of sphenoid sinus mucosa during the acute stage of pituitary apoplexy. J Neurosurg. 2001 Nov. 95 (5):897-901. [Medline].

33. Liu JK, Couldwell WT. Pituitary apoplexy in the magnetic resonance imaging era: clinical significance of sphenoid sinus mucosal thickening. J Neurosurg. 2006 Jun. 104 (6):892-8. [Medline].

34. Agrawal B, Dziurzynski K, Salamat MS, Baskaya M. The temporal association of sphenoid sinus mucosal thickening on MR imaging with pituitary apoplexy. Turk Neurosurg. 2012. 22 (6):785-90. [Medline].

35. Vaphiades MS. Pituitary Ring Sign Plus Sphenoid Sinus Mucosal Thickening: Neuroimaging Signs of Pituitary Apoplexy. Neuroophthalmology. 2017 Dec. 41 (6):306-309. [Medline].

36. Bills DC, Meyer FB, Laws ER Jr, et al. A retrospective analysis of pituitary apoplexy. Neurosurgery. 1993 Oct. 33(4):602-8; discussion 608-9. [Medline].

37. Kiyofuji S, Perry A, Graffeo CS, Giannini C, Link MJ. The dangers of the "Head Down" position in patients with untreated pituitary macroadenomas: case series and review of literature. Pituitary. 2018 Jun. 21 (3):231-237. [Medline].

38. Thomason K, Macleod K, Eyres KS. Hyponatraemia after orthopaedic surgery - a case of pituitary apoplexy. Ann R Coll Surg Engl. 2009 Apr. 91(3):3-5. [Medline].

39. Muthukumar N, Rossette D, Soundaram M, Senthilbabu S, Badrinarayanan T. Blindness following pituitary apoplexy: timing of surgery and neuro-ophthalmic outcome. J Clin Neurosci. 2008 Aug. 15(8):873-9. [Medline].

40. Harrington DO, Drake NV. Chiasm. The Visual Fields, Text and Atlas of Clinical Perimetry. 1990. 290-6.

41. Krisht AF, Tindall GT. Pituitary apoplexy. In: Clinical Decisions in Neuro-ophthalmology. 1999. 295-301.

42. Rose-Innes AP. Sheehan syndrome. Gilman S, ed. Neurology Medlink. 2001.

Michael S Vaphiades, DO Professor, Departments of Ophthalmology, Neurology, and Neurosurgery, Chief of Neuro-Ophthalmology and Electrophysiology Services, University of Alabama at Birmingham School of Medicine; Consulting Staff, Children's Hospital, Birmingham

Michael S Vaphiades, DO is a member of the following medical societies: American Academy of Neurology, North American Neuro-Ophthalmology Society, American Academy of Ophthalmology, American Osteopathic Association

Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

Simon K Law, MD, PharmD Clinical Professor of Health Sciences, Department of Ophthalmology, Jules Stein Eye Institute, University of California, Los Angeles, David Geffen School of Medicine

Simon K Law, MD, PharmD is a member of the following medical societies: American Academy of Ophthalmology, Association for Research in Vision and Ophthalmology, American Glaucoma Society

Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

Edsel Ing, MD, MPH, FRCSC Associate Professor, Department of Ophthalmology and Vision Sciences, University of Toronto Faculty of Medicine; Active Staff, Michael Garron Hospital (Toronto East Health Network); Consulting Staff, Hospital for Sick Children and Sunnybrook Hospital, Canada

Edsel Ing, MD, MPH, FRCSC is a member of the following medical societies: American Academy of Ophthalmology, American Association for Pediatric Ophthalmology and Strabismus, American Society of Ophthalmic Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery, Canadian Medical Association, Canadian Ophthalmological Society, Canadian Society of Oculoplastic Surgery, Chinese Canadian Medical Society, European Society of Ophthalmic Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery, North American Neuro-Ophthalmology Society, Ontario Medical Association, Royal College of Physicians and Surgeons of Canada, Statistical Society of Canada

Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.

Brian R Younge, MD Professor of Ophthalmology, Mayo Clinic School of Medicine

Brian R Younge, MD is a member of the following medical societies: American Medical Association, American Ophthalmological Society, and North American Neuro-Ophthalmology Society

Disclosure: Nothing to disclose.