References

National Center for Health Statistics: Vital Statistics of the United States, vol 2: Mortality, pt B. Washington, DC, US Dept of Health and Human Services, Public Health Service, 1990, pp 90-102.
Eaker ED, Cheseboro JH, Sacks FM, et al: American Heart Association medical/scientific statement on cardiovascular disease in women. Circulation 88:1999-2009, 1993.
Constance KH: What can be done to prevent coronary heart disease in women? Medscape Women's Health 1(12), 1996; www.medscape.com/.
Heart and Stroke Facts. Dallas, American Heart Association, 1992.
Castelli WP: Epidemiology of coronary heart disease: The Framingham Study. Am J Med 76:4-12, 1984.
Lerner DJ, Kannel WB: Patterns of coronary heart disease morbidity and mortality in the sexes: A 26-year follow-up of the Framingham population. Am Heart J 111:383-390, 1986.
Stokes J III, Kannel WB, Wolf PA, et al: The relative importance of selected risk factors for various manifestations of cardiovascular disease among women and men from 35-64 years: 30 years of follow-up in the Framingham Study. Circulation 75(suppl 6, pt 2):65-73, 1987.
Castelli WP: Cardiovascular disease in women. Am J Obstet Gynecol 158:1552-1560, 1988.
Kannel WB, Feinleib M: Natural history of angina pectoris in the Framingham Study. Am J Cardiol 29:154-163, 1972.
Maynard C, Litwin PE, Martin JS, et al: Gender differences in the treatment and outcome of acute myocardial infarction: Results from the Myocardial Infarction Triage and Intervention Registry. Arch Intern Med 152:972-976, 1992.
Puletti M, Sunseri L, Curione M, et al: Acute myocardial infarction: Sex-related differences in prognosis. Am Heart J 108:63-66, 1994.
Gruppo Italiano per lo Studio della Streptochinasi nellí Infarto Miocardico (GISSI): Effectiveness of intravenous thrombolytic treatment in acute myocardial infarction. Lancet 1:397-402, 1986.
Dittrich H, Gilpin E, Nicod P, et al: Acute myocardial infarction in women: Influence of gender on mortality and prognostic variables. Am J Cardiol 62:1-7, 1988.
Robinson K, Conroy RM, Mulcahy R, et al: Risk factors and in-hospital course of first episode of myocardial infarction or acute coronary insufficiency in women. J Am Coll Cardiol 11:932-936, 1988.
Jenkins JS, Flaker GC, Nolte B, et al: Causes of higher in-hospital mortality in women than in men after acute myocardial infarction. Am J Cardiol 73:319-322, 1994.
Becker RC, Terrin M, Ross R, et al, for the TIMI Investigators: Comparison of clinical outcomes for women and men after acute myocardial infarction. Ann Intern Med 120:638-645, 1994.
CASS Principal Investigators and their Associates: Coronary Artery Surgery Study (CASS): A randomized trial of coronary artery bypass surgery: Survival data. Circulation 68:939-950, 1983.
Chassin MR, Kosecoff J, Park RE, et al: Indications for Selected Medical and Surgical Procedures: A Literature Review and Ratings of Appropriateness: Coronary Angiography. Santa Monica, Calif., RAND Corp., 1986.
Ross J Jr, Brandenburg RO, Dinsmore RE, et al: Guidelines for coronary angiography: A report of the American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association Task Force on assessment of diagnostic and therapeutic cardiovascular procedures: Subcommittee on coronary angiography. J Am Coll Cardiol 10:935-950, 1987.
Bernstein SJ, Laouri M, Hilborne LH, et al: Coronary Angiography: A Literature Review and Ratings of Appropriateness and Necessity. Santa Monica, Calif., RAND Corp., 1992.
Sheldon WC: Indications for coronary arteriography. Heart Dis Stroke 2:192-197, 1993.
Holdright DR, Fox KM: Characterization and identification of women with angina pectoris. Eur Heart J 17:510-517, 1996.
Douglas PS, Ginsburg GS: The evaluation of chest pain in women. N Engl J Med 334:1311-1315, 1996.
Kennedy RH, Kennedy MA, Fryc RL, et al: Cardiac-catheterization and cardiac-surgical facilities: Use, trends, and future requirements. N Engl J Med 307:986-993, 1982.
Tobin JN, Wassertheil SS, Wexler JP, et al: Sex bias in considering coronary bypass surgery. Ann Intern Med 107:19-25, 1987.
Gillum RF: Coronary artery bypass surgery and coronary angiography in the United States, 1979-1983. Am Heart J 113:1255-1260, 1987.
Ayanian JZ, Epstein AM: Differences in the use of procedures between women and men hospitalized for coronary heart disease. N Engl J Med 325:221-225, 1991.
Steingart RM, Packer M, Hamm P, et al: Survival and Ventricular Enlargement Study: Sex differences in the management of coronary artery disease. N Engl J Med 325:226-230, 1991. Comments.
Wenger NK: Gender, coronary artery disease, and coronary bypass surgery. Ann Intern Med 112:557-558, 1990.
Wenger NK, Sperokk L, Packard B: Cardiovascular health and disease in women. N Engl J Med 329:247-256, 1993.
Chaitman BR, Bourassa MG, Davis K, et al: Angiographic prevalence of high-risk coronary artery disease in patient subsets (CASS). Circulation 64:360-367, 1981.
Bell MR, Berger PB, Holmes DR Jr, et al: Referral for coronary artery revascularization procedures after diagnostic coronary angiography: Evidence for gender bias? J Am Coll Cardiol 25:1650-1655, 1995.
Bell MR: Are there gender differences or issues related to angiographic imaging of the coronary arteries? Am J Card Imaging 10:44-53, 1996.
Shaw LJ, Miller DD, Romeis JC, et al: Gender differences in the noninvasive evaluation and management of patients with suspected coronary artery disease. Ann Intern Med 120:559-566, 1994.
Kilter ME: Coronary disease: Are there gender differences? Eur Heart J 15:409-417, 1994.
Fisher LD, Kennedy JW, Davis KB, et al: Association of sex, physical size and operative mortality after coronary artery bypass in the Coronary Artery Surgery Study (CASS). J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg 84:334-341, 1982.
Loop FD, Golding LR, MacMillan JP, et al: Coronary artery surgery in women compared with men: Analysis of risks and long-term results. J Am Coll Cardiol 1:383-390, 1983.
Kannel WB, Abbott RD: Incidence and prognosis of myocardial infarction in women: The Framingham Study, in Eaker ED, Packard B, Wenger NK, et al (eds): Coronary Heart Disease in Women. New York, Haymarket Doyma Inc, 1987, pp 208-214.
Khan SS, Nessim S, Gray R, et al: Increased mortality of women in coronary artery bypass surgery: Evidence for a referral bias. Ann Intern Med 112:561-567, 1990.
Kuhn FE, Rackley CE: Coronary artery disease in women. Arch Intern Med 153:2626-2636, 1993.
Mark DB, Shaw LK, DeLong ER, et al: Absence of sex bias in the referral of patients for cardiac catheterization. N Engl J Med 330:1101-1106, 1994.
Bernstein SJ, Hilborne LH, Leape LL, et al: The appropriateness of use of cardiovascular procedures in women and men. Arch Intern Med 154:2759-2765, 1994.
Jong P, Sternberg L: Gender differences in the features of coronary artery disease and referral patterns in patients undergoing coronary angiography. Can J Cardiol 11(suppl E):S137, 1995. Abstract.
Hachamovitch R, Berman DS, Kiat H, et al: Gender-related differences in clinical management after exercise nuclear testing. J Am Coll Cardiol 26:1457-1464, 1995.
Bickell NA, Pieper KS, Lee KL, et al: Referral patterns for coronary artery disease treatment: Gender bias or good clinical judgment? Ann Intern Med 116:791-797, 1992.
Laskey WK: Gender differences in the management of coronary artery disease: Bias or good clinical judgment? Ann Intern Med 116:869-871, 1992.
Green LA, Ruffin MT IV: A closer examination of sex bias in the treatment of ischemic cardiac disease. J Fam Pract 39:331-336, 1994.
Krumholz HM, Douglas PS, Lauer MS, et al: Selection of patients for coronary angiography and coronary revascularization early after myocardial infarction: Is there evidence for a gender bias? Ann Intern Med 116:785-790, 1992.
Chiriboga DE, Yarzebski J, Goldbert RJ, et al: A community-wide perspective of gender differences and temporal trends in the use of diagnostic and revascularization procedures for acute myocardial infarction. Am J Cardiol 71:268-273, 1993.
Kotosis JB, Wilson AC, O'Dowd K, et al: Sex differences in the management and long-term outcome of acute myocardial infarction: A statewide study: MIDAS (myocardial infarction data acquisition system) Study Group. Circulation 90:1715-1730, 1994.
Jaglal SB, Goel V, Naylor CD: Sex differences in the use of invasive coronary procedures in Ontario. Can J Cardiol 10:239-244, 1994.
Giles WH, Anda RF, Casper ML, et al: Race and sex differences in rates of invasive cardiac procedures in US hospitals: Data from the National Hospital Discharge Survey. Arch Intern Med 155:318-324, 1995.
Spertus JA, Weiss NS, Every NR, et al, for the Myocardial Infarction Triage and Intervention Project Investigators: The influence of clinical risk factors on the use of angiography and revascularization after acute myocardial infarction. Arch Intern Med 155:2309-2316, 1995.
Pryor DB, Harrell FE Jr, Lee KL, et al: Estimating the likelihood of significant coronary artery disease. Am J Med 75:771-780, 1983.
Kennedy JW, Killip T, Fisher LD, et al: The clinical spectrum of coronary artery disease and its surgical and medical management, 1974-1979: The Coronary Artery Surgery Study. Circulation 66(suppl 3):S16-S23, 1982.
Weiner DA, Ryan TJ, McCabe CH, et al: Exercise stress testing: Correlations among history of angina, ST-segment response and prevalence of coronary-artery disease in the Coronary Artery Surgery Study (CASS). N Engl J Med 301:230-235, 1979.
Pryor DB, Shaw L, Harrell FE Jr, et al: Estimating the likelihood of severe coronary artery disease. Am J Med 90:553-562, 1991.
Peniston RL, Adams-Campbell L, Fletcher JW, et al: Coronary arteriographic findings in black patients and risk markers for coronary artery disease. Am Heart J 127:552-559, 1994.
Orencia A, Bailey K, Yawn BP, et al: Effects of gender on long-term outcome of angina pectoris and myocardial infarction/sudden unexpected death. JAMA 269:2392-2397, 1993.
Elveback LR, Connolly DC: Coronary heart disease in residents of Rochester, Minnesota, V: Prognosis of patients with coronary heart disease based on initial manifestations. Mayo Clin Proc 60:305-311, 1985.
Fetters JK, Peterson ED, Shaw LJ, et al: Sex-specific differences in coronary artery disease risk factors, evaluation, and treatment: Have they been adequately evaluated? Am Heart J 131:796-813, 1996.
Sullivan AK, Holdright DR, Wright CA, et al: Chest pain in women: Clinical, investigative, and prognostic features. BMJ 308:883-886, 1994.
Jong P, Mohammed S, Sternberg L: Sex differences in the features of coronary artery disease of patients undergoing coronary angiography. Can J Cardiol 12:671-677, 1996.
Kennedy JW, Kaiser GC, Fisher LD, et al: Clinical and angiographic predictors of operative mortality from the Collaborative Study on Coronary Artery Surgery (CASS). Circulation 63:793-800, 1981.
Prinzmetal M, Kennamer D, Merliss R, et al: A variant form of angina pectoris. Am J Med 27:375-388, 1959.
Pepine CJ, El-Tamimi H, Lambert CR: Prinzmetal's angina (variant angina). Heart Dis Stroke 1:281-286, 1992.
Oliva PB, Potts DE, Pluss RG: Coronary arterial spasm in Prinzmetal angina. N Engl J Med 288:745-751, 1973.
Maseri A, Pesola A, Marzilli M, et al: Coronary vasospasm in angina pectoris. Lancet 1:713-718, 1977.
Heupler F, Proudfit W, Razavi M, et al: Ergonovine maleate provocative test for coronary arterial spasm. Am J Cardiol 41:631-640, 1978.
Maseri A, Chierchia S: Coronary artery spasm: Demonstration, definition, diagnosis, and consequences. Prog Cardiovasc Dis 25:169-192, 1982.
Maseri A, Severi S, De Nes M, et al: 'Variant' angina: One aspect of a continuous spectrum of vasospastic myocardial ischemia: Pathogenetic mechanisms, estimated incidence and clinical and coronary arteriographic findings in 138 patients. Am J Cardiol 42:1019-1035, 1978.
Lambert DR, Therou HD, Pepine CJ: Effects of intracoronary ergonovine on the contralateral coronary artery in patients with atypical chest pain. Am J Cardiol 66:1383-1385, 1990.
Schroeder JS, Bolen JL, Quint RA, et al: Provocation of coronary spasm with ergonovine maleate: New test with results in 57 patients undergoing coronary arteriography. Am J Cardiol 40:487-491, 1977.
Ludmer PL, Selwyn AP, Shook TL, et al: Paradoxical vasoconstriction induced by acetylcholine in atherosclerotic coronary arteries. N Engl J Med 315:1046-1051, 1986.
Yasue H, Horio Y, Nakamura N, et al: Induction of coronary artery spasm by acetylcholine in patients with variant angina: Possible role of the parasympathetic nervous system in the pathogenesis of coronary artery spasm. Circulation 74:955-963, 1986.
Bertrand ME, LaBlanche JM, Tilmant PY, et al: Frequency of provoked coronary arterial spasm in 1089 consecutive patients undergoing coronary arteriography. Circulation 65:1299-1306, 1982.
Fujii H, Yasue H, Okumura K, et al: Hyperventilation-induced simultaneous multivessel coronary spasm in patients with variant angina: An echocardiographic and arteriographic study. J Am Coll Cardiol 12:1184-1192, 1988.
Bugiardini R, Pozzati A, Ottani F, et al: Vasotonic angina: A spectrum of ischemic syndromes involving functional abnormalities of the epicardial and microvascular coronary circulation. J Am Coll Cardiol 22:417-425, 1993.
Mudge GH, Goldberg S, Gunther S, et al: Comparison of metabolic and vasoconstrictor stimuli on coronary vascular resistance in man. Circulation 59:544-550, 1979.
Boden WE, Bough EW, Korr KS, et al: Exercise-induced coronary spasm with ST-segment depression and normal coronary arteriography. Am J Cardiol 48:193-197, 1981.
Thaulow E, Guth BD, Ross J Jr: Role of calcium channel blockers in experimental exercise-induced ischemia. Cardiovasc Drugs Ther 1:503-512, 1988.
Opie LH: Calcium channel antagonists in the management of anginal syndromes: Changing concepts in relation to the role of coronary vasospasm. Prog Cardiovasc Dis 38:291-314, 1996.
Tomoike H: Coronary spasm and integrity of endothelial function. Jpn Circ J 56:175-177, 1992.
Kemp HG: Left ventricular function in patients with the anginal syndrome and normal coronary arteriograms. Am J Cardiol 32:375-376, 1973.
Assey ME: The puzzle of normal coronary arteries in the patient with chest pain: What to do? Clin Cardiol 16:170-180, 1993.
Cannon RO 3d, Epstein SE: 'Microvascular angina' as a cause of chest pain with angiographically normal coronary arteries. Am J Cardiol 61:1338-1343, 1988.
Maseri A, Crea P, Kaski JC, et al: Mechanisms of angina pectoris in syndrome X. J Am Coll Cardiol 17:499-506, 1991.
Cannon RO 3d, Camici PG, Epstein SE: The pathophysiological dilemma of syndrome X. Circulation 85:883-892, 1992.
Chauchan A, Mullins PA, Thuriaisingham SI, et al: Clinical presentation and functional prognosis in syndrome X. Br Heart J 70:346-351, 1993.
Holdright DR, Lindsay DC, Clarke D, et al: Coronary flow reserve in patients with chest pain and normal coronary arteries. Br Heart J 70:513-519, 1993.
Opherk D, Zebe H, Wiehe E, et al: Reduced coronary dilatory capacity and ultrastructural changes of the myocardium in patients with angina pectoris but normal coronary arteriograms. Circulation 63:817-825, 1981.
Cannon RO 3d, Watson RM, Rosing DR, et al: Angina caused by reduced vasodilator reserve of all the small coronary arteries. J Am Coll Cardiol 1:1359-1373, 1983.
Cannon RO 3d, Leon MB, Watson RM, et al: Chest pain and 'normal' coronary arteries: Role of small coronary arteries. Am J Cardiol 55(3):50B-60B, 1985.
Cannon RO 3d: Diagnosis and management of microvascular angina. Prim Cardiol 16:15-27, 1990.
Kern MJ: Extracting the coronary artery from syndrome X: Is epicardial vasomotion physiologic in patients with normal coronary arteriograms and reduced coronary flow reserve? J Am Coll Cardiol 18:55-56, 1991.
Chauhan A, Mullins PA, Petch MC, et al: Is coronary flow reserve in response to papaverine really normal in syndrome X? Circulation 89:1998-2004, 1994.
Motz W, Vogt M, Rabenay O, et al: Evidence of endothelial dysfunction in coronary resistance vessels in patients with angina pectoris and normal coronary angiograms. Am J Cardiol 68:996-1003, 1991.
Quyyumi AA, Cannon RO 3d, Panza JA, et al: Endothelial dysfunction in patients with chest pain and normal coronary arteries. Circulation 86:1864-1871, 1992.
Egashira K, Inou T, Hirooka Y, et al: Evidence of impaired endothelium-dependent coronary vasodilatation in patients with angina pectoris and normal coronary angiograms. N Engl J Med 328:1659-1664, 1993.
Chauhan A, Mullins P, Taylor G, et al: Both endothelial and non-endothelial function is impaired in syndrome X. Circulation 90:I144, 1994. Abstract.
Coneoli A, Nurhyan N, Reilly JJ, et al: Mechanism of increased gluconeogenesis in noninsulin-dependent diabetes mellitus: Role of alterations in systemic, hepatic, and muscle lactate and alanine metabolism. J Clin Invest 86:2038-2045, 1990.
Dean JD, Jones CJ, Hutchison SJ, et al: Hyperinsulinaemia and microvascular angina ('syndrome X'). Lancet 337:456-457, 1991.
Chauhan A, Foote J, Petch MC, et al: Hyperinsulinaemia, coronary artery disease and syndrome X. J Am Coll Cardiol 23:364-368, 1994.
Bugiardini R: Epicardial coronary reactivity in patients with syndrome X: The role of increased adrenergic tone. Coronary Artery Dis 3:564-569, 1992.
Rosano GMC, Ponikowski P, Adamopoulos S, et al: Abnormal autonomic control of the cardiovascular system in syndrome X. Am J Cardiol 73:1174-1179, 1994.
Chauhan A, Mullins PA, Thuraisingham SI, et al: Abnormal cardiac pain perception in syndrome X. J Am Coll Cardiol 24:329-335, 1994.
Shapiro LM, Crake T, Poole-Wilson PA: Is altered cardiac sensation responsible for chest pain in patients with normal coronary arteries? Clinical observation during catheterization. BMJ 296:170-171, 1988.
Cannon RO 3d, Quyyumi AA, Schenke WH, et al: Abnormal cardiac sensitivity in patients with chest pain and normal coronary arteries. J Am Coll Cardiol 16:1359-1366, 1990.
Chauhan A: Syndrome X -- Angina and normal coronary angiography. Postgrad Med J 71:341-345, 1995.
Kane JP, Malloy MJ, Ports TA, et al: Regression of coronary atherosclerosis during treatment of familial hypercholesterolemia with combined drug regimens. JAMA 264:3007-3012, 1990.
Waters D, Higginson L, Gladstone P, et al: Effects of monotherapy with an HMG CoA reductase inhibitor upon the progression of coronary atherosclerosis as assessed by serial quantitative arteriography: The Canadian Coronary Atherosclerosis Intervention Trial (CCAIT). Circulation 89:959-968, 1994.
Waters D, Higginson L, Gladstone P, et al: Effects of cholesterol lowering on the progression of coronary atherosclerosis in women: A Canadian Coronary Atherosclerosis Intervention Trial (CCAIT) substudy. Circulation 92:2404-2410, 1995.
Brensike JF, Levy RI, Kelsey SF, et al: Effects of therapy with cholestyramine on progression of coronary atherosclerosis: Results of the NHLBI Type II Coronary Intervention Study. Circulation 69:313-324, 1984.
Levy RI, Brensike JF, Epstein SE, et al: The influence of changes in lipid values induced by cholestyramine and diet on progression of coronary artery disease: Results of the NHLBI Type II Coronary Intervention Study. Circulation 69:325-337, 1984.
Blankenhorn DH, Azen SP, Kramsch DM, et al: Coronary angiographic changes with lovastatin therapy: The Monitored Atherosclerosis Regression Study (MARS). Ann Intern Med 119:969-976, 1993.
Sacks FM, Pasternak RC, Gibson CM, et al: Effect on coronary atherosclerosis of decrease in plasma cholesterol concentrations in normocholesterolaemic patients. Lancet 344:1182-1186, 1994.
Havel RJ: Analysis of angiographic trial data in women. Drugs 47(suppl 2):S11-S15, 1994.
Gruchow HW, Anderson AJ, Barboriak JJ, et al: Postmenopausal use of estrogen and occlusion of coronary arteries. Am Heart J 115:954-963, 1988.
Sullivan JM, Vander-Zwaag R, Lemp GF, et al: Postmenopausal estrogen use and coronary atherosclerosis. Ann Intern Med 108:358-363, 1988.
McFarland KF, Boniface ME, Hornung CA, et al: Risk factors and noncontraceptive estrogen use in women with and without coronary disease. Am Heart J 117:1209-1214, 1989.
Hong MK, Romm PA, Reagan K, et al: Effects of estrogen replacement therapy on serum lipid values and angiographically defined coronary artery disease in post-menopausal women. Am J Cardiol 69:176-178, 1992.
Engel HJ, Engel E, Lichtlen PR: Coronary atherosclerosis and myocardial infarction in young women -- Role of oral contraceptives. Eur Heart J 4:1-6, 1983.
Kindwall EE: Therapy for coronary heart disease in women. Cardiovasc Clin 10:195-203, 1989.
Hong MK, Mintz GS, Popma JJ, et al: Limitations of angiography for analyzing coronary atherosclerosis progression or regression. Ann Intern Med 121:348-354, 1994.